>> Number and grouping of countries
Chapter 1
A political map of the World
§ 1. Number and grouping of countries
By area size All countries are usually divided into the largest (or giant countries), large, medium, small and microstates. In Europe, for example, France can be classified as a large state, Germany as a medium state, Slovenia as a small state, and San Marino as a microstate.
The countries of the world that are giants in terms of territory are listed in Table 12.
In terms of population, the grouping of countries can be about the same.
The countries with the largest number of inhabitants are listed in table 13.
About 3/5 of the world's population is concentrated in these ten largest countries.
Table 12
Giant countries with an area of more than 3 million km 2
Table 13
Giant countries with more than 100 million inhabitants, 2008
Regional economic groupings:
EU - European Community
NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement
ASEAN - Association of States South-East Asia
Latin American Integration Association
Caribbean Commonwealth and Common Market (CARICAM)
Commonwealth of Independent States
Industry economic groupings:
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)
3.1. European Economic Community (EEC)
Combining a row European states who aspire to economic integration with a partial renunciation of their national sovereignties. The European Economic Community was legally formalized by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and initially included six countries: Germany. France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy. In 1973, it included England, Denmark and Ireland, in 1981 - Greece, in 1986 - Spain and Portugal. The economic policy of the EEC is based on the following principles: free trade exchange, free migration of labor, freedom to choose a place of residence, freedom to provide services, free movement of capital and free payment turnover.
The first step towards implementation These principles was the creation of a free trade zone, which involved the mutual abolition of customs duties, export and import quotas and other foreign trade restrictions. At the same time, a single customs policy began to be pursued in relation to third countries that are not members of the EEC (the so-called "customs union"). The main obstacle to this is the existence of different tax systems with different tax rates, primarily in the field of indirect taxes. An important stage in the development of the "Common Market" was the creation of the European Monetary System. Although in this case, the desire of most EEC member countries to pursue their own independent monetary policy is most obvious.
In addition to the EEC, there is the European Coal and Steel Community; and the European Atomic Energy Community. These three associations are known as the European Communities (EC). There are a number of supranational bodies that govern the European Economic Community: the Council of Ministers (the legislature); Commission of the European Communities(executive agency); European Parliament (supervises the activities of the Commission and approves the budget); Court of the European Communities (highest judicial body); European Council (it consists of the heads of government of the member countries of the EEC); European Political Cooperation (a committee composed of 15 foreign ministers and one member of the Commission of the European Communities). The strengthening of the role of the latter body testifies to the desire of the participating countries not only for economic, but also for political integration. Currently, the European Community includes 15 countries.
Level differences economic development countries of the EU and the degree of their desire to participate in integrated areas led back in the 80s to the emergence of the idea of a Europe of "concentric circles" and a Europe with "variable geometry", and further discussed and developed. However, they acquired the greatest relevance when the question of accession to the EU by Central and of Eastern Europe(CEE).
At the session of the European Council in Copenhagen in June 1993. it was decided that the Associated Member States of CEE who wish to join the EU will be able to do so as soon as they are able to fulfill the relevant requirements.
most insistently Germany, which is rapidly expanding its influence in these countries and actively developing their markets, advocates the speedy inclusion of Central and Eastern European countries in the EU. Experts from seven scientific institutions, including the German Society for Foreign Policy, have concluded that unstable countries in the eastern part of the continent, if they are not admitted to the EU in time, may require emergency measures of billions of dollars in aid, in addition, there may be a new split between East and West, accompanied by the threat of strengthening nationalist tendencies on both sides and the emergence of ethnic and ideological conflicts.
Many European politicians believe what will the European Union itself gain from expanding its borders in eastbound a guarantee against economic collapse and the establishment of authoritarian regimes in this zone, which would threaten not only a number of European politicians directly, but also a greater balance within the union itself, especially given the growing strength of Germany. This is especially important as the Franco-German tandem has been starting to falter lately. In addition, in this way, not only Germany, but also other EU member states would consolidate their influence in this part of Europe, although now 50% of the trade of Central and Eastern European countries is with Western countries. In this regard, it should be borne in mind that, according to Western economists, Central Europe may soon become one of the most rapidly developing parts of the continent.
There are so-called integrated programs that have been started as an experiment since 1979. The main goals of integrated programs is a coordinated approach to solving similar problems in different regions. The Mediterranean programs can serve as an example. Countries with adjacent regions are coordinating their actions for the development of these regions, funds from EEC structural funds, such as the Fund for Industrial Restructuring, have been attracted
The main sources of funding for EU programs are:
1. European Monetary Cooperation Fund
2. Mutual lending of national securities
The main EU lending instruments are:
1. Foreign exchange intervention.
2. Short-term currency support (up to 75 days, can be repeated at short intervals).
3. Medium-term lending.
4. Long-term assistance for up to 5 years.
3.2. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAF-TA)
Dey-st-woo-et since 1984 and yav-la-et-sya is the largest re-gio-nal volume-e-di-no-no-eat. The number of population is 373 million people, in the EU - about 345 million. The total volume of GDP of the NAF-TA is approximately 7 throne . USD.
NAF-TA is based on principles different from the EU, the main ones being:
Stage by stage, in the course of 15 years, the establishment of such ;
Whether-be-ra-li-za-tion in-ve-sti-qi-on-no-go re-zhi-ma;
providing you-with-a-th-level for-shi-you in-tel-lek-tu-al-noy so-st-ven-no-sti;
· time-to-work with-together program-we to fight against pollution of the environment.
Without-us-lov-naya ini-tsia-ti-va and leader-st-vo in the creation of NAF-TA belongs to the United States (the economic potential of GDP is 100%). The agreement also includes Canada (economic potential of GDP 9.4%) and Mexico (economic potential of GDP 5.5%).
The desire of the United States to integrate with partners under the agreement is due to the following circumstances:
a) Combine-not-you-with-who-to-teach-but-tech-no-thing-th-th-th-th-thia-la with the bottom-ki-mi from-hold-ka- mi on wages (for example, in Mexico, the average salary in 1985 was 14% of the average salary in the United States).
b) In-te-gra-tion of the USA and Canada osu-sche-st-in-la-et-xia with-sut-st-vii spe-ci-al-nyh in-sti-tu- tsio-nal-nyh structures-tour. 20% of the GNP of Ka-na-dy is real-li-zu-et-sya in the USA, i.e. 60-70% ex-port of Ka-na-dy. Ka-na-da is the largest US trade partner (about 25% of US exports or about 1% of GNP). For American corporations, Canada is the main object of in-ve-sti-ro-va-nia, the volume of in-ve-sti-tion co-sta-viv in 1992, 56 billion USD in 1992.
The development of integration was the signing in 1988 of an agreement on the creation of a free trade zone between the USA and Ka-na-doi - CAFTA, someone a swarm of sub-ra-zu-me-va-et full of whether-to-vi-da-tion bar-e-ditch when trading in the USA and Ka-na-da, raz-ra-bo-tku co-together me-ha-niz-mov, re-gu-li-rui-shchih co-together competition, creation of over-on-cio- nal-nyh su-deb-nyh and ar-bit-razh-nyh or-g-news, acceptance of significant-chi-tel-os-lab-le-niy oh-ra-no-che-ny to the American Institute of Cannes in Ka-na-de.
Large-scale rapprochement between the US and Mexico began in 1989 and was characterized by the processes of pri-va-ti-za-tion, sho-ko-howl te-ra-pii, attracting foreign in-ve-sto-ditch, li- be-ra-li-for-tion of foreign trade. 80% of all foreign investments in the Mexican economy were investments from the United States.
Thus, NAFTA is characterized by the following features:
1. Asymmetric character, pro-is-te-ka-ing from the fact that about 85% of GDP and industrial production come to the USA - water-st-va of three countries.
2. Asym-metriya of the levels of development between you-so-co-raz-vi-you-mi countries-on-mi (USA and Ka-na-da) and development -vayu-shche-sya Mek-si-koy.
3. Asim-met-riya in-ten-siv-no-sti of two-sided economic ones from-no-she-niy (USA - Ka-na-da, USA - Mek-si-ka), from -sut-st-vie of mature eco-no-mi-che-sky from-but-she-ny me-zh-du Ka-na-doy and Mek-si-koy. So do-la Mek-si-ki in the WTO of Ka-na-dy in 1993 amounted to a little more than 1%.
Economic impact of NAFTA based on a sharp increase in ameri-can-sko-go ex-port-that, and from-here-yes increase-li-che-for-ny-to-sti (in 1994 the American export port grew by 17.5% only from the creation of the NAF-TA). Pe-re-nose of labor-to-em-things, science-to-things and dirty productions in Mexico-si-ku will allow to reduce the cost of pro-from-water- st-va and in-higher con-ku-ren-then-so-property of goods (GM, FORD, Crysler on-me-re-us on-you-sit ka-pi-ta-lo-vlo -same-nia in Mexico-si-ku, the same way you can increase the profit by more than 10%). Po-lu-che-nie big fi-nan-co-vy influences are expected due to whether-be-ra-li-za-tion mi-gra-tion ka-pi-ta-la (up to 8% of Mexico's GDP).
3.3. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Created in 1967 as an agreement of 5 countries - Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia. Brunei joined the association in 1984 and Vietnam joined in 1995.
ASEAN is the most influential grouping among developing countries. Serious eco-but-mi-che-co-work-no-che-st-in-cha-lo development since 1976, since the adoption of Dec-la-ra-tion with -gl-this and program-we dey-st-viy and implied 4 spheres of mutually-im-no-go eco-but-mi-che-sko-go-work-no-che-st-va :
Pre-fe-ren-qi-al-ny access to-va-ditch in the frames of mutual trade-whether it-p-li-vo and pro-to-free-st-vie ;
Co-work-no-thing-st-in in the field of trade (with co-together you go to foreign markets and markets of third countries) ;
Pro-from-water-st-ven-noe co-labor-no-thing-st-in;
Eco-but-mi-che-ties you-ra-bot-ka-general in-zi-tion on eco-but-mi-che-pro-ble-mums, representing a general in-te-res for all members new
During the work of the Association in 1977 create-yes-on-zo-on-pre-fe-ren-qi-al-noy trade-gov-whether for 20 to-va-ditch. A year later, the number of goods was increased to 70, with an average preference rate of 20-25%. After 1989, the pre-fer-ren-tion to-ve-de-na up to 50% on 12,700 item options. The first project to create a free trade zone was carried out in 1987, and in 1989 the concept of creating triangles was created -kov eco-no-mi-che-sko-go-growth (according to the pre-lo-zhe-ni-mi-ni-st-ra eco-no-mi-ki Sin-ga-pu-ra). The first “triangle-nick” included: Sing-ga-pur, Ma-lai-zia, In-do-ne-zia (the next two have ad-mi-ni-st -ra-tiv-no-eco-no-mi-che-sky districts). He received the name “Southern Triangle”.
In 1992, the Sing-ga-pur-sky sam-mit took place ASE-AN member countries, on some rum, a decision was made to create a free trade zone of AB-TA. It should be created by 2008 (for 15 years) through whether-to-vi-da-tion according to duties in mutual trade-le-trade-le water-st-ven-ny-mi and re-ra-bo-tan-ny-mi agricultural products-duk-ta-mi up to 5%). As part of the pro-from-waters-st-veins-no-go-work-no-che-st-va, there was only one project - build-tel-st-for -in-yes, according to the pro-from-water-st-wu hi-mi-che-th-th convenience.
Within the framework of AV-TA, plan-no-ru-et-xia osu-shche-st-vit from-me-well in-shlin, us-ra-not-nie-whether-che-st-ven-nyh-ra-no-che-niy, gar-mo-no- for-tion of national-tsio-nal-standards, mutual recognition of ser-ti-fi-ka-tov ka-che-st-va, us-ra-non-nie og-ra-ni-che-niy on the movement of the ka-pi-ta-la, pro-ve-de-ni-consul-ta-tion on the os-shche-st-v-le-ny poppy -ro-eco-no-mi-che-sky in-li-ti-ki with the goal of co-or-di-na-tion after it. To the present-standing mo-men-tu Ma-lay-ziya co-kra-ti-la or from-me-ni-la sent us for 2600 to-va-ditch in mutual noah trade-gov-le. In-do-not-zia and Phi-lip-pee-we took off og-ra-ni-che-niya on foreign-strange ka-pi-ta-lo-investment in energy -ti-ku and te-le-com-mu-ni-ka-qi-on-ny mustache-lu-gi. Thailand took off og-ra-ni-che-niya for the import of auto-mo-bi-lei.
The main eco-no-mi-che effect of the association is based on the creation of a large-scale volume-e-di-nen-no-go market with a total number len-no-stu on-se-le-tion of 330 million people and an annual total of GNP - 300 billion USD, as well as incentive-mu-li- ro-va-nii in-ve-hundred-ditch third-of-their countries contribute ka-pi-tal to ASE-AN ).
3.4. Latin American Integration Association (LAI)
Large in-te-gra-ci-on-naya group-pi-ditch-ka, created in 1980, for-me-ni-la su-sche-st-vo-vav-shu before this LAST, some-paradise about-su-s-s-st-vo -wa-la from 1961 to 1980.
The goal of the LAI is to create la-ti-no-ame-ri-kan-sko-go general market on the basis of already sl-alive-she-go-sya in the years of su -sche-st-in-va-niya LAST (FTA).
Member-on-mi-or-ga-ni-za-tions are 11 countries, sub-divided into 3 groups-p-riv-ki:
More times-vi-tye (Ar-gen-ti-na, Bra-zi-lia, Mek-si-ka);
· average level (Ve-ne-su-ela, Ko-lum-biya, Pe-ru, Urug-wai, Chi-li);
The least developments (Bo-li-via, Pa-ra-gwai, Ek-va-dor).
Members of the LAI for-key-chi-whether me-f-du co-battle co-gla-she-tion about pre-fe-ren-qi-al-noy trade-gov-le and less development -thy countries with a hundred more times-vi-ty pre-dos-tav-la-yut-sya pre-fe-ren-tions.
The highest or-g-nom LAI yav-la-et-sya Council of mi-ni-st-ditch of foreign-foreign affairs, is-full-ni-tel-ny organ-gan - Conference of evaluation and rapprochement - study-cha -there is no level of eco-no-mi-che-development, possible-on-right-le-tion of in-te-gra-tion, its impact on eco-no-mi-ku, times-ra-ba-you-va-et stages and for-da-chi in-te-gra-ci-on-nyh pro-cesses; so-bi-ra-et-sya 1 time per year. In-hundred-yang-ny organ - Ko-mi-tet before-hundred-vi-te-lei. Headquarters-tee-ra - in Mon-te-vie-deo (Urug-wai).
3.5. Caribbean Commonwealth and Common Market (CA-RI-COM)
Is the most-bo-lee us-to-chi-how group-pi-ditch-coy. Created in 1973, on the basis of os-no-ve do-go-vo-ra, sub-pi-san-no-go in Tri-ni-dad and To-ba-go, it includes cha-et 16 countries of the Caribbean-bas-se-on and in-li-chie from all in-te-gra-ci-on-ny groups-pi-ro-wok ob-e-di- nya-et not only not-for-vi-si-my go-su-dar-st-va, but also for-vi-si-my ter-ri-to-rii.
KA-RI-COM was founded on the earlier created FTA. In it, su-sche-st-vu-yut different sub-re-gio-nal-nye from de-le-tion; the most-bo-more about-dvi-well-you-mi from the point of view of the re-gio-nal-noy in-te-gra-tion is-la-yut-sya:
The Caribbean general market within the framework of KA-RI-KOM, where there is a full of li-to-wee-di-ro-va-ny tor-go-ogh-ra-ni -che-niya between Bar-ba-do-som, Tri-ni-da-house and To-ba-go, Guy-a-noy, Yamai-koy and An-ti-gua. These countries have approved a single ta-mo-female tariff on the basis of to-va-rams of third countries, i.e. this is a fak-ti-che-ski ta-mo-female union, in the os-no-ve-something-ro-go lie pro-mouse-flax-but-raw-e-th-th- v-ry. A third of the mutual trade-whether composes the oil-the-pro-duk-you.
Vos-toch-no-ka-rib-sky general market, including the least developed countries; in it there is a ten-den-tion to the creation of a general va-lyu-you and a joint Central Bank.
In the 1970s and 80s, KA-RI-KOM is-py-you-val cri-sis-events-le-tions associated with oil-ty-ny and general-eco-no-mi-che-sky cri-zi-sa-mi , increase-li-chiv-shi-mi external-for-debt-femininity. In the present moment, pro-is-ho-dyat is positively re-re-me-ny.
In 1992, members of the Commonwealth achieved a sharp pas-de-niya of ta-mo-women's-duties (with-near-zi-tel-but by 70%). Particularly ben-but successful, but there is in-te-gra-tion in the region of re-gu-li-ro-va-niya agricultural production from water-st-va (do-ku-ment “ It's time to act"). There was a pre-lo-same-on a new model-del in-te-gra-tion on the os-no-ve ten-den-tion to the os-lab-le-niyu go-su-dar-st- vein-no-go vme-sha-tel-st-va. Since 1995, on the territory of the Commonwealth, a free transfer of citizens has been introduced and from-me-to-pas-port-no-go mode.
3.6. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
Created December 8, 1991. The agreement on its creation was signed by the leaders of the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. On December 21, 1991, in Alma-Ata, the heads of eleven sovereign states (except the Baltic states and Georgia) signed the Protocol to this Agreement, in which they emphasized that the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Republic of Armenia, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation, the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, the Republic of Uzbekistan and Ukraine on an equal basis form the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Participants unanimously adopted the Alma-Ata Declaration, which confirmed the commitment of the former Soviet republics to cooperation in various areas of foreign and domestic policy, and proclaimed guarantees for the fulfillment of the international obligations of the former USSR. Later, in December 1993, Georgia joined the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth of Independent States operates on the basis of the Charter adopted by the Council of Heads of State on January 22, 1993.
The Commonwealth of Independent States is not state and has no supranational powers. In September 1993, the heads of state of the Commonwealth of Independent States signed the Treaty on the Establishment of the Economic Union, which laid down the concept of transforming economic interaction within the Commonwealth of Independent States, taking into account the realities that had developed in it. The basis of the Treaty is the understanding by its participants of the need to form a common economic space based on the free movement of goods, services, labor, capital; development of a coordinated monetary, tax, price, customs, foreign economic policy; convergence of methods of regulation economic activity, creating favorable conditions for the development of direct industrial relations.
At a meeting in Bishkek (1998) the heads of government approved a program of priority actions for the formation of a single economic space, which stipulates actions for the convergence of legislation, customs and transport tariffs, and the interaction of industries and enterprises of the three republics.
Also, specific projects are being developed to create new consortiums in the field of oil and gas, exploration, agro-industrial complex
At the beginning of 2000 283 million people lived on the territory of the CIS, mainly residents of five states - Russia (146 million), Ukraine (50 million), Kazakhstan (15 million), Uzbekistan (24 million) and Belarus (10 million) . The remaining seven countries - Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan - account for just over 36 million people.
Alliance countries Recently, more than 400 million tons of oil per year have been pumped out of their bowels. This is over 10% of the world's annual production. Gas in the CIS produces almost a third of the world's volumes, coal 500 million tons, or almost 12% of world production. The Commonwealth countries produce 11% of the world's electricity, 15% of primary aluminum, about 30% of nickel, over 10% of copper, more than 11% of mineral fertilizers, smelt almost 11% of steel, the supply of which to third countries is 16% world steel exports. About 20% of the arms market falls on the CIS states, and 12% of the world's scientists work in the research centers of the Commonwealth, which indicates that the Commonwealth has scientific base sufficient for proper development.
Thus, the CIS states have the most powerful natural, industrial, scientific and technical potential. According to foreign experts, the potential market capacity of the CIS countries is about 1600 billion dollars, and they determine the achieved level of production in the range of 500 billion dollars.
Growth of GDP and industrial production in the CIS, are important trends in the development of the participating countries, their relations and, accordingly, the economic integration of the Commonwealth countries. So, for example, over the ten months of 2000, compared to the same period last year, GDP grew in most states by 4-10%, in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan it rose by 10.5%, in Armenia and Kyrgyzstan - by 4%, in Belarus and Ukraine - by 5%, in Tajikistan - by 8.3%, and in Georgia it was 99.8% of the previously achieved level. Industrial production increased by an average of 9.7% (poles - Kazakhstan - 15.3% and Moldova - 2.3%). In Ukraine, this figure is 11.9%, in Tajikistan - 10.4%, in Russia - 9.8%, in Belarus - 8.6%, in Kyrgyzstan - 7.9%, in Azerbaijan - 6.3%, in Georgia - 6.2%.
True, the high level of these and some other indicators is largely due to the low base of comparison. The total volume of mutual trade between the CIS countries for 9 months of 2000 exceeded 43 billion dollars, which is 39% higher than the value indicators of 1999, incl. exports by 41%, imports - by 38%. This rapid increase occurred largely due to the exorbitant rise in prices of industrial producers. In Belarus, they almost tripled, in Uzbekistan - by 57%, in Tajikistan and Kazakhstan - by 45-47%, in other countries (except for Armenia and Georgia, where the growth was expressed by 0.9% and 6% respectively) 30-39%.
3.7. Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Voluntary intergovernmental economic organization, the task and main goal of which is to coordinate and unify the oil policy of its member states.
OPEC is looking for ways to ensure stabilization of prices for petroleum products in the world and international oil markets in order to avoid fluctuations in oil prices that have harmful consequences for OPEC member states. The main goal is also to return to Member States their investment in the oil industry with a profit.
In 1960 in Baghdad the main suppliers of oil to the world market are Venezuela, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia founded the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). OPEC was registered with the United Nations on September 6, 1962 (UN Resolution No. 6363). The OPEC charter was approved at the 2nd conference in Caracas on January 15-21, 1961. In 1965, the charter was completely revised. Later, numerous changes and additions were also made to it. OPEC now accounts for about 40% of world oil production. Initially, the headquarters of OPEC was in Geneva (Switzerland), but then moved to Vienna (Austria).
Later, after the creation of the organization, it included Qatar (1961), Indonesia and Libya (1962), the United Arab Emirates (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973). ) and Gabon (1975).
In addition to the desire to increase income from oil, and eventually to establish national control over the oil industry, OPEC members were also united by the fact that they are developing countries, whose economy was financed mainly by oil, and were objects of exploitation by the oil industry. cartel in principle on the basis of the same unequal concession agreements. |
Currently, OPEC consists of 11 states (Gabon ceased its membership in 1995, and Ecuador in 1992).
OPEC declares the following main goals:
1. Coordination and unification of the oil policy of the Member States. Determination of the most effective individual and collective means of protecting their interests.
2. Ensuring price stability on world oil markets.
3. Attention to the interests of oil producing countries and the need to ensure:
sustainable income of oil-producing countries,
effective, cost-effective and regular supply of consumer countries,
fair returns from investments in the oil industry,
protection of the environment for the benefit of present and future generations,
· cooperation with non-OPEC countries in order to implement initiatives to stabilize the world oil market.
The structure of OPEC consists of the Conference, Committees, Board of Governors, Secretariat, Secretary General and Economic Commission of OPEC.
The supreme body of OPEC is the Conference, consisting of delegations (up to two delegates, advisers, observers) representing Member States. The board of directors can be compared to the board of directors in a business enterprise or corporation. The Economic Commission is a specialized structural division of OPEC operating within the Secretariat, whose task is to assist the organization in stabilizing the oil market. The Inter-Ministerial Monitoring Committee monitors (annual statistics) the situation and proposes to the conference action to address the relevant problems. The OPEC Secretariat functions as the headquarters. He is responsible for the execution of the organization's executive functions in accordance with the provisions of the OPEC Charter and the directives of the Board of Governors.
In 1976, OPEC organized OPEC Fund for International Development (headquartered in Vienna, originally this organization was called the Special Fund for OPEC). It is a multilateral development finance institution that promotes cooperation between OPEC member states and other developing countries.
A special place in the export of capital from OPEC member countries is occupied by assistance and loans to other developing states. Unlike funds recycled to the West, OPEC assistance is an instrument of independent national policy in the field of capital export.
Member countries of OPEC provide assistance mainly within the framework of bilateral or regional relations. Some of the funds go to developing countries through the mediation of the IMF and IBRD.
The outstanding domestic geographer N. N. Baransky in one of his works wrote that the country in all its originality - natural, economic, cultural, political - is main object study in geography, so the question of the number and grouping (classification) of countries is of great interest.
During the XX century. The total number of countries in the world has been steadily increasing. This was caused primarily by the redivision of the world after the First and Second World Wars. In the early 90s, after the collapse of the USSR, the SFRY, and Czechoslovakia, there were 20 more of them. As of 2008, various sources put the total number of countries and territories at 225–230.
At the same time in the XX century. ever-increasing number of independent sovereign states (Table 1) and, accordingly, the number of countries at various stages of political dependence and, therefore, not having full self-government, decreased.
Table 1 clearly reflects not only the post-war redistribution of the world, but also the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism. It led to the fact that after 1945 102 countries of Asia, Africa, America, Oceania and even Europe (Malta) achieved political independence. And the number of non-self-governing territories (colonies, protectorates, so-called overseas departments, etc.) decreased from 130 in 1900 to 16 in 2005. Most of them are now small island possessions in the Caribbean Sea and Oceania.
Table 1
NUMBER OF SOVEREIGN STATES
An important guideline in determining the number of sovereign states can be the membership of countries in the United Nations. (tab. 2).
table 2
NUMBER OF UN MEMBER COUNTRIES
Growth in the number of countries - members of the UN in 1950-1989. occurred mainly due to the entry into this organization of states liberated from colonial dependence. That's what they are called liberated countries. In 1990–2007 the UN included several more liberated countries (Namibia, Eritrea, etc.), but the main increase was already associated with the admission to it of post-socialist states formed on the spot former USSR, SFRY, Czechoslovakia. Now the UN includes all the countries of the CIS, six republics of the former. Yugoslavia, Czech Republic and Slovakia. In 2002, after a special referendum, Switzerland joined the UN, having previously considered that its policy of permanent neutrality interfered with this. So now, of the sovereign states outside the UN, only the Vatican remains, which has the status of an observer.
With such a large and, moreover, ever-increasing number of countries, there is an urgent need for their grouping, which is usually carried out according to several different criteria.
Table 3
THE TEN LARGEST COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD
According to the size of the territory, the countries of the world are usually divided into very large, large, medium, small and very small. The top ten largest countries in the world, or giant countries, include the states listed in Table 3. Together they occupy 55% of all inhabited land.
The concepts of "large", "medium", "small" country are different for different regions of the world. For example, the most big country foreign Europe - France - by the standards of Asia, Africa or America is relatively small. But the concept of “a very small country” (or microstate) is approximately the same for different regions of the world. Most often it is applied to dwarf countries foreign Europe - Andorra, Liechtenstein, San Marino, etc. But in fact, many island countries of Africa, America and Oceania are among the microstates. For example, the Seychelles in Africa, Barbados, Grenada, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in Central America have an area of 350-450 km 2 (this is less than 1/2 of the area of Moscow), and island states Tuvalu and Nauru in Oceania occupy only 20–25 km 2 each. And the Vatican, which covers an area of 44 hectares, can be called a completely mini-state.
Only 13 countries have a population of 50 to 100 million people: Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy and Ukraine in Europe, Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand, Iran and Turkey in Asia, Egypt and Ethiopia in Africa and Mexico in Latin America. In 53 countries, the population ranges from 10 to 50 million people. There are even more countries in the world with a population of 1 to 10 million (60), and in more than 40 countries the population does not even reach 1 million people.
Table 4
THE TEN LARGEST COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD IN POPULATION
As for the smallest states in terms of population, political map of the world, they must be sought in the same place where the smallest territories of the country are located. In Central America, these are, for example, Barbados and Belize with a population of 200-300 thousand people, Grenada, Dominica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, with approximately 100 thousand inhabitants each. In Africa, the same category of countries includes the island states of Sao Tome and Principe and the Seychelles, in Asia - Brunei, in Oceania - the island states of Tuvalu, Nauru, where only 10-12 thousand people live. However, the last place in terms of population is occupied by the Vatican, whose permanent population does not exceed 1000 people.
By features geographical location countries of the world are most often divided into those with and without access to the oceans. Among coastal countries, in turn, islands can be distinguished (for example, Ireland and Iceland in Europe, Sri Lanka in Asia, Madagascar in Africa, Cuba in America, New Zealand in Oceania). A variety of island countries are archipelago countries. So, Indonesia is located on 13 thousand islands, the Philippines occupy 7000, and Japan - almost 4000 islands. It is not surprising that the archipelago countries are among the top ten states in terms of coastline length. (tab. 5). Yes, and Canada occupies an uncompetitive first place in this indicator thanks to the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
Table 5
THE TOP TEN COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD BY COASTLINE LENGTH
43 countries do not have access to the World Ocean. Among them, 9 countries of the CIS, 12 - foreign Europe, 5 - Asia, 15 - Africa and 2 countries Latin America (Table 6).
As a rule, the lack of direct access to the World Ocean is one of the unfavorable features of the country's geographical position.
Table 6
COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD WITHOUT ACCESS TO THE OPEN SEA
End of work -
This topic belongs to:
Geographical picture of the world
Maksakovskiy V P... Geographical picture of the world Book I General characteristics of the world...
If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:
What will we do with the received material:
If this material turned out to be useful for you, you can save it to your page on social networks:
| tweet |
All topics in this section:
Book. I: General characteristics of the world.
Moscow, Bustard, 200
Typology of the countries of the world
The typology of the countries of the world is one of the most difficult methodological problems. It is solved by economic geographers, economists, political scientists, sociologists and representatives of other sciences. Unlike groups
Armed conflicts in the modern world
In the era of the bipolar world and the Cold War, one of the main sources of instability on the planet were numerous regional and local conflicts that both socialist and capitalist
Political system: forms of government
The political system of any country is characterized primarily by the form of government. There are two main forms of government - republican and monarchical. Republics arose in
Political system: administrative-territorial division
The political system of any country is also characterized by the form of administrative-territorial structure (or administrative-territorial division - ATD). Usually such a division is carried out
Political geography
Political geography is a borderline, transitional science that arose at the intersection of geography and political science. Formation of political geography as an independent scientific discipline
Geopolitics before and now
Geopolitics (geographical policy) is one of the main directions of political geography. Like political geography, it considers the processes and phenomena taking place in the world at different levels.
Electoral geography
Political-geographical country studies include, as one of the central directions, the study of the territorial alignment of political forces. The richest material for such a study is provided by the analysis
Political-geographical (geopolitical) position
The category of geographical location, which characterizes the position of one or another spatial object in relation to others, is very widely used in geography. This category has several
The doctrine of the geographical environment
The geographical environment is one of the most important concepts of geographical science. It was proposed in late XIX V. the famous French geographer Eliza Reclus and the Russians who worked with him
Geographical determinism (fatalism) and geographical indeterminism (nihilism)
In a broad sense, determinism is a philosophical concept, which is based on the Latin word determinare - to determine. It means regular interconnection, interdependence, and causality.
From the history of the use of minerals
Today, about 250 types of minerals and almost 200 types of ornamental and precious stones are known. However, their involvement in the economic turnover occurred gradually throughout the entire human population.
World resources of mineral fuels and raw materials
Mineral resources are commonly referred to as minerals extracted from the bowels of the Earth. About 200 different types of mineral fuels and raw materials are used in the modern economy. Classy
Mineral resources of the oceans
The world ocean, which occupies about 71% of the surface of our planet, is also a huge pantry of mineral wealth. Minerals within it are enclosed in two different environments
World geothermal energy resources
The lithosphere is associated with resources not only of traditional types of mineral fuel, but also of such an alternative type of energy as the heat of the earth's interior. Sources of geothermal energy can be
World Land Fund
English economist of the 17th century. William Petty said "Work is the father of wealth, and land is its mother." Indeed, land is a universal natural resource, without which practically
Degradation of land (soil) resources
Under the degradation (from the Latin gradus - a step and the prefix de, meaning downward movement) of the land, soil cover is understood as the process of its deterioration and destruction as a result of negative impacts.
Desertification issues
In recent decades, it has been clearly found that the state of the planet's land fund is especially negatively affected by the processes of aridization (from the Latin aridus
World water resources
The concept of water resources can be interpreted in two senses - broad and narrow. In a broad sense, this is the entire volume of hydrosphere water contained in rivers, lakes, glaciers, seas and oceans, and
Large reservoirs of the world
A reservoir is a body of water in a river bed or in a depression of the earth's surface, artificially created by means of dams, bridges, diggings intended for flooding to
Salt water desalination
One of the additional ways to increase reserves fresh water– desalination (desalination) of saline waters. This method has been known for a very long time. Two millennia ago, people learned to receive
Earlier it was said that the bulk of the world's fresh water reserves (or more than 25 million km3) are, as it were, conserved in the ice sheets of the globe. At the same time, first of all
World hydropower potential of river flow
Hydropower (water energy) is the energy possessed by water moving in streams along the earth's surface. There are three categories of hydropower potential (hydropower
Energy resources of the oceans
The World Ocean contains huge, truly inexhaustible resources of mechanical and thermal energy, moreover, constantly renewable. The main types of such energy are the energy of tides, waves, ocean
World Forest Resources
In the scientific literature, one often comes across a description of the role of the forest, forest vegetation as an integral part of the biosphere. It is usually noted that forests form the largest ecosystems on Earth, in which
Deforestation issues
Deforestation (deforestation) is the disappearance of a forest due to natural causes or as a result of human activities. The process of anthropogenic deforestation is actually
Biological resources of the oceans
The concept of the biological resources of the World Ocean can be interpreted in two senses - a broader and a narrower one. In the first of them, this is all the variety of animals and plants that live in the sea.
World Climate Resources
Climate resources are called inexhaustible natural resources, including solar energy, moisture and wind energy. They are not consumed directly in tangible and intangible
Recreational resources
It is well known what an important place in life modern people acquired recreation. A variety of activities of people involved in recreation are called recreational activities.
Anthropogenic impact on the lithosphere and its protection
Pollution of the natural environment by waste products of industrial and non-industrial activities of people applies to all geospheres of our planet, including the lithosphere. In this case, it is
Anthropogenic pollution of land waters and their protection
Numerous and diverse sources of land water pollution can be divided into natural and anthropogenic. Among natural sources on a large scale and truly global
Anthropogenic pollution of the World Ocean and its protection
Pollution of the World Ocean and its seas occurs as a result of direct or indirect entry into the marine environment (in sea water, on sea bottom, in coastal and estuarine areas of the seas) of various
Anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere and its protection
Atmospheric air, which is a mixture of gases and aerosols of the surface layer of the atmosphere, is the most important life-supporting environment for all life on Earth. But it doesn't just affect humans.
The impoverishment of the gene pool of wildlife and its protection
In the narrow sense of the word, the gene pool (from the Greek. genes - giving birth, born and from the French. fond - base) is the totality of genes of individuals that make up a given population or species. But this term
Interdisciplinary nature of the problem "Society and the environment". The role of geography in its solution
"Society and the environment" is not only an international, interstate, but also an interdisciplinary problem. Almost all humanitarian, natural
The concept of population reproduction
The reproduction (natural movement) of the population is the most characteristic property of the population, which is studied by the science of demography. If you use the simplest available in its
Historical types of population reproduction and the theory of demographic transition
As human civilization developed, the nature of population reproduction, quite naturally, also changed. Since human society over the millennia of existence "che
World population dynamics
Considering the general issues of population reproduction and demographic transition allows a better understanding of the dynamics of the world's population. In general terms, it corresponds to historical types.
Population explosion in the modern world
The mechanism of the population explosion in developing countries has been studied by demographers in detail and comprehensively. It became a natural consequence of the demographic situation prevailing in the countries of Asia, Africa
The demographic crisis in the modern world
Economically the developed countries of the world, as already noted, have long passed the second phase of the demographic transition and have entered its third phase, which is characterized by a decrease in indicators of natural
Demographic policy
Demographic policy is a purposeful activity of state bodies and other social institutions in the field of regulating the reproduction of the population, designed to preserve or
The sex structure of the world's population
The sex structure of the population, i.e. the ratio of the number of men and women in it, is an important indicator that affects many demographic processes, especially marriage, and through it, birth
Age structure of the world population
The age of a person is the period from his birth to one or another counted moment in his life. Since at different stages of his life a person performs various economic, social and demo
World workforce
Labor resources is a term used in economic science to refer to that part of the country's population that has the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge.
Population quality: health
Along with the quantitative estimates of the world's population, which were given above, recently a new concept has been increasingly used - about its quality. Demographers consider the quality of population
Population quality: life expectancy
Life expectancy is one of the most important demographic categories, which is, as it were, a generalizing characteristic of human mortality. When defining it, the term "environment" is usually used.
Population quality: education and qualifications
Important components that characterize the quality of the population are also information about its educational level and the qualifications of labor resources. According to UNESCO data, in 1950 the share
Ethnic (national) composition of the world population
The study of the ethnic (national) composition of the population is carried out by a science called ethnology (from the Greek ethnos - tribe, people), or ethnography. Established as an independent
The main features of the modern geography of religions
Despite all the historical changes, the modern geography of religions is quite stable. Christianity is the most widespread in the world. In p
Cultural (civilizational) regions of the world
"Culture" and "civilization" are concepts that are widely used both in scientific and journalistic literature and in everyday life. In the broadest sense, culture is understood as everything that is created by people in the world.
The uneven distribution of the world's population
The world population has already exceeded 6.6 billion people. All these people live in 15-20 million different settlements - cities, towns, villages, villages, farms, etc. But these settlements are located on the territory of the earth
International population migrations
Population migrations (from Latin migratio - resettlement) are the movements of people across the borders of certain territories associated with a permanent or temporary change of residence. Sometimes for
The main features of the geography of migrations
International migrations of the population were characteristic of most stages of human development and had a significant impact on this development itself, contributing to the adaptation of people to different conditions of beings.
Global urbanization and "urban explosion" in the modern world
When defining urbanization as a process of increasing the proportion of the urban population in the total population, the role of cities, the spread of urban lifestyle and urban culture, it is usually emphasized that
Urbanization and environment
Cities of the world, concentrating on their very small territory compared to the entire land fund of the planet more than 4/5 of the production of the entire national income, 9/10 of the cost of production is processed
Geography of the population as a branch of socio-economic geography
Population geography studies geographical features formation and development of the population and populated areas in various social, economic and natural conditions. She lays down the law
Scientific and technological progress and scientific and technological revolution
Scientific and technological progress (STP) and scientific and technological revolution (STR) are similar concepts of the same plan (like the concepts of "nature" and "geographical environment"), but still not synonymous. Can sk
Technique and technology in the era of scientific and technological revolution
The word technology (from the Greek techne - art, skill) means a set of tools created to carry out production processes and service non-productive needs of the general public.
Computerization and complex automation
It has already been said that the computer should be considered one of the main (if not the main) symbols of modern scientific and technological revolution. In fact, over the past few decades, electronics have literally invaded people.
Biotechnology and bioindustry
Biotechnology is understood as a set of methods and techniques for the use of living organisms, biological products and biotechnical systems in the manufacturing sector. In other words, biotechnology
Stages of development of the world economy
There are many definitions of such important concepts as "world economy", "world economy". The most successful is the one that characterizes the world economy as historically
Development cycles of the world economy
Cyclic development is generally characteristic of many processes occurring in nature and society. Therefore, they talk about natural, ecological, general civilizational, demographic, scientific, integration
Sectoral structure of the world economy
The sectoral structure of the economy is understood as the totality of its parts (industries and sub-sectors), historically formed as a result of the social division of labor. It is characterized by equity
Models of the spatial structure of the world economy
As the world economy develops, not only its sectoral, but also its spatial structure, the hierarchical subordination of its individual parts are modified and complicated. This is a natural process
Asia-Pacific region in the world economy
The polystructural spatial model of the world economy not only does not exclude, but, on the contrary, to some extent implies the movement of the main "center of gravity" of this economy from one region
International economic integration
International economic integration is one of the most striking manifestations of the internationalization of economic life in the second half of the 20th century. It can take different forms, reach various
Transnationalization of the world economy
It is customary to refer to transnational corporations (TNCs) as large financial and industrial associations, national or (less often) international in terms of capital, which operate in two or more countries.
Territory as a placement factor
N. N. Baransky, Yu. G. Saushkin, and I. M. Maergoiz wrote a lot about territory as a location factor. V. V. Pokshishevsky, emphasizing the special significance of the territorial approach for our science, said that
Economic and geographical location as a location factor
Economic-geographical position (EGP) is one of the important concepts of economic and social geography, widely used in educational geography. A great contribution to its formation was made by N. N. Bara
Natural resource factor of placement
The natural resource factor is one of the classical factors of location, which is considered in many works of domestic and foreign geographers. For a long time he provided
Transport factor of accommodation
The transport factor is another classic factor in the distribution of productive forces. N.N. Baransky, N.N. Kolosovsky, Yu.G.Saushkin, I.M.
Territorial concentration and deconcentration of production
Territorial concentration of production - accumulation, its concentration in a limited space. The benefits of such a concentration are to reduce the cost of production, increase its
Territorial forms of organization of science
In the second half of the XX century. within the framework of socio-economic geography, a new direction began to form, which received the name geography of science. And although this direction as a whole has not yet been
Regional policy
Regional policy is a system of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to a more rational distribution of productive forces, with
The study of the world economy in socio-economic geography
The world economy is a complex interdisciplinary concept. Firstly, this is a historical category, since the formation of the world economy is the result of a thousand-year evolution of production.
Industry of the world
Despite the fact that with the beginning of the transition to a post-industrial society, the share of industry in world GDP and employment of the economically active population began to decrease, industry remains the most
Ways of development of world energy
Mastering the sources of energy has always been a way of human survival. And now its consumption remains one of the most important not only economic, but also social indicators, largely preventing
Geographical aspects of the development of world energy
World production and consumption of fuel and energy also have pronounced geographical aspects and regional differences. The first line of such differences runs between economically advanced and developed countries.
Oil industry of the world
The oil industry is the leading branch of the global fuel and energy industry. It has a very strong influence on the entire world economy, and on world politics. The oil industry is different
Consumption, export and import of oil and oil products
Above was considered, and at different levels, the geography of world oil production. However, the geography of consumption of oil and oil products differs greatly from it. This is clearly evidenced
Gas industry of the world
Natural gas as a fuel has many positive properties - high calorific value, good transportability, more environmentally friendly compared to oil and coal.
International trade in liquefied natural gas
Since the 1970s liquefied natural gas (LNG) began to act as a new factor in the world energy economy. Interest in this energy carrier was due to many reasons.
Oil and natural gas production in the oceans
The extraction of oil and natural gas in the waters of the World Ocean has a rather long history. Primitive methods of offshore oil production were carried out as early as the 19th century. in Russia (in the Caspian Sea), in the USA (in Kalif
Coal industry of the world
The coal industry continues to be an important sector of the global energy industry, and coal fuel is the “second line” in the structure of global energy consumption. The development of this industry is
World power industry
The electric power industry is part of the fuel and energy complex, forming in it, as they sometimes say, the “top floor”. We can say that it is one of the basic sectors of the world economy.
Nuclear power of the world
Nuclear (nuclear) energy can be considered as one of the important sub-sectors of world energy, which in the second half of the 20th century. began to make a significant contribution to the production of electricity.
Uranium industry of the world
The uranium industry, which works for and is closely related to nuclear power, includes two main production stages. The first of these is the extraction of uranium ores, which are found in sandstone.
The category of non-traditional renewable energy sources (NRES), which is also often referred to as alternative, is usually classified as a few that have not yet received wide distribution.
As already noted, the practically inexhaustible energy sources of the World Ocean also belong to the category of non-traditional ones. But since the World Ocean is a very special
Mining industry of the world
The mining industry, which forms the basis of the extractive industry, is classified as a primary industry, since it deals with primary natural resources- minerals
World iron ore industry
Iron ore mining is one of the major sub-sectors of the mining industry. But since iron ores are used in ferrous metallurgy, this production is organized in many countries, including
World ferrous metallurgy
Ferrous metallurgy is one of the basic industries, or industries of its "lower level", associated with the processing of various types of raw materials, mainly mineral. Its value is determined
World non-ferrous metallurgy
Non-ferrous metallurgy, as an industry, has a complex internal structure. It includes the extraction and enrichment of non-ferrous metal ores, their metallurgical processing (obtaining concentrate, crude and
World aluminum industry
It is known that aluminum is the most common metal (8.8%) in the earth's crust. And its importance in the world economy is evidenced by the fact that in metallurgy it ranks second after iron, and
Mechanical engineering of the world
Mechanical engineering is the main industry in terms of the number of employees, the cost of products and, accordingly, the share in all industrial production. modern industry. This is due to the fact that it
global automotive industry
The automotive industry, which originated at the end of the 19th century, is usually classified as a new industry. But among this group of industries, it continues to play a very special role. In terms of influence
World electronics industry
The electronics industry is often referred to as the brainchild of NTR, and indeed it is. At first, it originated in the bowels of electrical engineering (radio engineering), but then it actually separated from it, turning into
Chemical industry of the world
The chemical industry, along with mechanical engineering, is one of the leading industries both in individual developed countries and in the world economy as a whole. It arose long before the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution, and according to
Forest industry of the world
The importance of the timber industry is determined by the role that wood and its products continue to play in the economy and everyday life of people. It should also be taken into account that forest resources are
Textile industry of the world
Textile industry - the most important industry light industry, which provides about half of its total production, and also occupies the first place in it in terms of the number of employees. os
Industry and environment
Industry is the main polluter of the environment, affecting all spheres of the geographic envelope. This is due to the fact that the industry as a whole covers all stages of the resource cycle -
world agriculture
Agriculture is the second most important branch of material production after industry. Originating in the era of the Neolithic revolution, it has been a fact for the next ten millennia.
Green Revolution” in the agriculture of developing countries
In the 60-70s. 20th century a new concept has entered the international lexicon - the "green revolution", referring primarily to developing countries. This is a complex, multicomponent concept, which in
Biotechnology revolution in economically developed countries
As already noted, the industrialization of agriculture (or the first "green revolution") took place in the developed countries of the West for a long time. In the 70-80s. 20th century these countries have achieved a lot
Centers of origin of cultivated plants and domestic animals and their further migrations
The centers of origin of cultivated plants and domestic animals are those areas of the Earth where certain types of plants useful to humans arose or were cultivated and where they are most concentrated.
Grain farming of the world
Plant growing (agriculture) has always played and continues to play the main role in providing the population of the Earth with food, and in some industries with raw materials. In crop production, the first
Other food crops
Despite the special role of grain crops in providing the world population with food, more than half of all cultivated areas on the planet are occupied by other, also mainly food
non-food crops
Non-food crops include primarily fibrous crops, rubber plants, and, with some degree of conventionality, narcotic crops. Into the most important group of fibers
animal husbandry of the world
Animal husbandry is the second main branch of world agriculture, comparable in importance to crop production, and in many countries and regions surpassing it. In the structure of this industry, you
Production and consumption of livestock products
Livestock products are meat, milk, butter, cheese, eggs, wool. All of it, with the exception of wool, is an important part of the food "basket", and wool serves as a raw material for textile production.
Agriculture and environment
Agriculture is one of the important factors in the impact of human activity on the environment, and much earlier than industry. Therefore, the problems of rational economic
world fisheries
Fishing can be considered as one of the types of nature management, which consists in the extraction of fish and other seafood (sea animals, invertebrates, algae), although it may have been followed
Aquaculture
The relatively limited possibilities of self-reproduction of the bioresources of the World Ocean make it necessary to look for new approaches that would ensure the supply of fish products to the world market. Main
Whaling
The need for a careful attitude to the biological resources of the oceans can be illustrated by the example of whaling. Whales are a detachment of aquatic mammals, which are divided into two
World transport system
We have already spoken about the role of transport as one of the main infrastructure sectors in the normal, rhythmic functioning of the world economy. As a sensitive barometer of the development of this economy,
World rail transport
Railway transport, which originated in the era of the industrial revolution, remained the main mode of transport throughout the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. The first steam railway
World road transport
Whole story road transport fits within the framework of one XX century, during which he experienced, figuratively speaking, both his "antiquity", and the "Middle Ages", and the "new" and "recent" times. Nowadays
World pipeline transport
Along with rail and road pipelines water transport refers to land transport. However, while both goods and passengers are transported by rail and road, pipes
World maritime shipping
Shipping is the oldest branch of transport, which originated in the distant past. And now maritime transport is a very important part of the world transport system, without which the normal function
The world's navy
The merchant marine fleet is usually characterized by two main indicators: the number of ships in operation and their tonnage, which is determined either by cargo capacity or by cargo capacity.
Seaports of the world
The total number of seaports in the literature is estimated differently. L. I. Vasilevsky once gave a figure of 25-30 thousand, apparently taking into account the smallest ports of purely local significance. meets
International sea channels and straits
Considering the formation of the international geographical division of labor, N. N. Baransky wrote about such key places, including isthmuses and straits, the possession of which allows interception
Inland water transport
As already mentioned, the total length of the internal waterways in the world is 550 thousand km. Until the early 1990s. in terms of the length of navigable routes, the USSR occupied the first place in the world (123 thousand km), the second
World Air Transport
Air Transport, like the automotive industry, has been demonstrating a steady progressive development in recent decades, for which, even in the presence of rare and short-term recessions, “booms” are characteristic.
Transport and environment
Fast development different types transport in the second half of the twentieth century. led to an increase in their negative impact on the environment. It is expressed in the chemical pollution of the environment with waste from combustion
International economic relations
Under the international economic relations understand the system of economic relations between the national economies of individual countries. This is a special field of activity based on international
open economy
In recent decades, an important new concept of an open economy has entered the economic and geographical use, in general form meaning an increase in the role of world economic relations in the development
Free economic zones
Active inclusion of an increasing number of countries in the world in the international geographical division of labor, their growing into world economic relations, their implementation of the basic principles of openness of the economy, home
Dynamics and structure of world trade
World (international) trade is the oldest and traditional form of foreign economic relations. Suffice it to recall that the world market was in general terms formed back in the era of the Great
Geographic distribution of world trade
The geographical distribution of world trade can be considered at different levels, meaning the participation in it of three groups of countries, large regions and individual states. Share of three groups
World market of services
Along with the traditional trade in goods in the last two or three decades, trade in services has become more and more widespread, which are expressed not in a material product, but in a specific form.
Offshore zones of the world
As already noted, among the free economic zones there is a group of service zones specializing in the provision of various kinds of services. Offshore zones play a special role among them.
Regulation of international trade in goods and services
Attempts at state regulation of international trade have been made before, but in most cases they were in the form of protectionism and were expressed in restricting the import of goods and increasing
World financial market
Along with the world market for goods and services, the global financial market has also developed as part of the world economy, which has a rather complex structure (Fig. 120). The basis of this market is the export of capital
World financial centers
The formation of the world market for entrepreneurial and, to an even greater extent, loan capital, the expansion of the markets for gold, loans, currency, and securities led to the complication of their structure and the formation of
Regulation of international monetary and financial relations
International monetary and financial relations arose even when money began to function in payment relations between countries. Gradually, they became more and more complicated, and now, in the era of global
International production cooperation
In turn, it is the result of two complementary processes - international specialization and international cooperation of production. International specialization
International scientific and technical cooperation
Scientific and technical cooperation is an even younger form of international non-material economic relations. It is largely due to the scientific and technological revolution and the development of interstate specialization and
Development of international tourism
international tourism is one of the forms of exchange of services. The tourism boom that has swept the world in recent decades is based on specific economic, social and other reasons.
Geography of international tourism
The spread of modern international tourism is characterized by significant territorial unevenness. In its most general form, it reflects the different levels of socio-economic development of Seva
World Heritage of Humanity
Back in 1972, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) adopted an international convention for the protection of the World Cultural and natural heritage. Simultaneously
Globalization: a controversial process
At the turn of the XX and XXI centuries. the concept of globalization has become truly key, or, as they often say, iconic. The study of the phenomenon of globalization attracts scientists, public and political figures,
Global Information Space
Acceleration of globalization processes at the end of the 20th century. largely due to the real information revolution that occurred at that time, which led to the creation of global information networks.
Global problems of mankind
In the course of the development of civilization, complex problems, sometimes of a planetary nature, repeatedly arose before humanity. But still it was a distant prehistory, a kind of "incubation period"
Towards a secure and nuclear-free world
For several post-war decades, the problem of preventing a world war has been the most important, the highest priority global problem of mankind. It is known that war imposed
Degradation of the global ecological system
Until recently, the main problem of the survival of mankind was the problem of war and peace, and today most experts agree that it has become a global environmental problem.
Territorial analysis of environmental problems of the world
Much has been devoted to the territorial analysis of the environmental problems of the world. geographical research in which these problems are considered at different levels - continents and parts of the world, macroregions
Areas of acute environmental situations in Russia and other CIS countries
Despite the fact that the world's largest Northern Eurasian Center for Environmental Stabilization is located within Russia, thanks to which natural ecosystems have been preserved on 2/3 of its territory.
The impact of natural and man-made disasters on the global environmental situation
Recently, a new concept of risk has come into scientific use - both for an individual, and for a state, and for the entire world community. Among the possible risks, there are specific
Ways to solve the global environmental problem
Today, environmental security has become an important part of the national security of states. This term refers to the state of security of each individual, society,
Specially protected natural areas of the world
In the context of the ongoing degradation of the natural environment under the influence of various types of anthropogenic activities, it is important, and from a geographical point of view, of particular importance is
The future of the baby boom
Among the global problems of our time, a very important place belongs to the demographic problem as another priority problem of the survival of mankind. Some authors even call it
Ways of development of global urbanization
As already shown, urbanization in the second half of the XX century. has become one of the important all-encompassing, global processes of socio-economic development. A. E. Sluka, not without reason, called him “t
The global food problem and its geographical aspects
Another complex global problem is food. This is a very multifaceted problem - both natural and socio-economic. It is reflected in almost all sides of the
Ways to solve the global food problem
Since the emergence of the global food problem, there have been discussions about how to solve it. Despite some discrepancies, in the most general terms, one can obviously talk about two main
The global energy problem and ways to solve it
The global energy problem is, first of all, the problem of reliable supply of mankind with fuel and energy. "Bottlenecks" in such provision have been discovered more than once in past epochs.
Global resource problem and ways to solve it
The global raw material problem has a number of similarities with the energy problem, so it is not surprising that they are sometimes considered together as a single fuel and raw material problem. Valid
The global problem of the development of the oceans
At all stages of the development of human civilization, the World Ocean has been one of the most important sources of sustaining life on Earth. It is well known for its contribution to climate stabilization, the circulation of substances,
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
In addition to the economic, settlement and environmental aspects, the global problem of the World Ocean has another extremely important aspect related to both economic and environmental, but so
Peaceful exploration of outer space
Space is a global environment, the common heritage of mankind. Therefore, the problem of its peaceful development is one of the global ones. On the one hand, it affects the interests of all states of the planet, and on the other
Protecting and promoting the health of the world's population
Among the global problems of our time, the problem of protecting and strengthening the health of the human race occupies, one might say, a special place. And because it is one of the oldest problems with which
global education
Until very recently, the problems of education were considered mainly at the level of individual countries, more precisely, their school and university systems. In pedagogy, a special branch of knowledge has developed, called
Underdevelopment as a global problem
Among the priority global problems of mankind, there is one that, as it were, absorbs many others, and first of all, demographic and food problems. In a broad sense, this is
Other global issues
Along with the global problems described above, which are usually classified as priorities, there are other complex problems that have recently also acquired a global character.
Global Forecasts
With the emergence of global problems in most sciences, there has been an increased interest in the future, in the prospects for development. This future is being explored at all levels – local, country, sub-regional,
Global projects
Global projects are large engineering projects aimed at transforming the nature of individual parts of our planet in order to achieve a great economic effect. Most famous
The hypothesis of global climate change of the Earth
Recently, the world community has expressed increasing concern about the forecast for the 21st century. Earth climate change. The main thing in this change is the already begun increase in the average rate
The hypothesis of stabilization of the population of the Earth
The question of the possibility of stabilizing the population of the Earth has long been of concern to humanity. Interest in it usually escalates during periods of demographic revolutions. So it was at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries.
Ecumenopolis hypothesis
The gradual growth of the urban population, the "urban explosion", the increase in the number of super-cities already modify and complicate the urban picture of the world. This also applies to spatial
Sustainable development strategy
On the issue of a general assessment of the current state of civilization, there are different opinions - from relatively optimistic to extremely pessimistic. As an example of a very pessimistic assessment
Global changes and geography
The global problems of mankind have become important object interdisciplinary research that involves both public and natural, and Technical science. Some of these sciences include
Common to all topics
Alisov N. V., Khorev B. S. Economic and social geography of the world (general review): Textbook for universities. - M .: Gardariki, 2000. Bestuzhev-Lada I.V. Alternative
Topics 4 and 5
Abramov V. L. World economy. Tutorial. - M .: Dashkov and K ", 2006. Alexandrova A. Yu. International tourism: Textbook. - M .: Aspect Press, 2004.
Vladimir Pavlovich Maksakovskiy
Geographical picture of the world
Book I
General characteristics of the world
The first edition of this textbook, published in three volumes by the Upper Volga Book Publishing House (Yaroslavl), was very positively received by the geographical community. As far as one can judge, the three-volume book is widely used both in the tenth grades of general educational institutions and in the geographical departments of universities.
However, the political and economic conjuncture of the course of socio-economic geography is such that by the beginning of the XXI century. the main factual material of the book is already quite outdated. To some extent, some conceptual approaches have also changed. Hence the natural desire of the author to return to his work, to rework and modernize it.
The degree of this revision turned out to be much greater than the author assumed. As a result, in its present form, the manual is actually a new book, written mainly on the basis of new materials, which made it possible not only to bring the world economic and regional characteristics up to 2005, but also to enrich them with new content. And the total number of essays has been increased from 230 to 335.
This manual is published by the Drofa publishing house, and not in three, but in two volumes. The first volume covers part I "General characteristics of the world" with the theme "Global problems of mankind" included in it, closely related to it in a semantic sense. The second volume contains part II "Regional characteristics of the world". Thanks to this distribution of material, both volumes are approximately equal in volume, making up a single whole.
V. P. Maksakovskiy, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education
THEME 1
MODERN POLITICAL MAP OF THE WORLD
Number and grouping of countries in the world
The outstanding domestic geographer N. N. Baransky in one of his works wrote that the country in all its originality - natural, economic, cultural, political - is main object study in geography, so the question of the number and grouping (classification) of countries is of great interest.
During the XX century. The total number of countries in the world has been steadily increasing. This was caused primarily by the redivision of the world after the First and Second World Wars. In the early 90s, after the collapse of the USSR, the SFRY, and Czechoslovakia, there were 20 more of them. As of 2008, various sources put the total number of countries and territories at 225–230.
At the same time in the XX century. ever-increasing number of independent sovereign states (Table 1) and, accordingly, the number of countries at various stages of political dependence and, therefore, not having full self-government, decreased.
Table 1 clearly reflects not only the post-war redistribution of the world, but also the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism. It led to the fact that after 1945 102 countries of Asia, Africa, America, Oceania and even Europe (Malta) achieved political independence. And the number of non-self-governing territories (colonies, protectorates, so-called overseas departments, etc.) decreased from 130 in 1900 to 16 in 2005. Most of them are now small island possessions in the Caribbean Sea and Oceania.
Table 1
NUMBER OF SOVEREIGN STATES
An important guideline in determining the number of sovereign states can be the membership of countries in the United Nations. (tab. 2).
table 2
NUMBER OF UN MEMBER COUNTRIES
Growth in the number of countries - members of the UN in 1950-1989. occurred mainly due to the entry into this organization of states liberated from colonial dependence. That's what they are called liberated countries. In 1990–2007 Several more newly-liberated countries (Namibia, Eritrea, etc.) joined the UN, but the main increase was associated with the admission of post-socialist states that formed on the site of the former USSR, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia. Now the UN includes all the countries of the CIS, six republics of the former. Yugoslavia, Czech Republic and Slovakia. In 2002, after a special referendum, Switzerland joined the UN, having previously considered that its policy of permanent neutrality interfered with this. So now, of the sovereign states outside the UN, only the Vatican remains, which has the status of an observer.
With such a large and, moreover, ever-increasing number of countries, there is an urgent need for their grouping, which is usually carried out according to several different criteria.
Table 3
THE TEN LARGEST COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD
According to the size of the territory, the countries of the world are usually divided into very large, large, medium, small and very small. The top ten largest countries in the world, or giant countries, include the states listed in Table 3. Together they occupy 55% of all inhabited land.
The concepts of "large", "medium", "small" country are different for different regions of the world. For example, the largest country in foreign Europe - France - by the standards of Asia, Africa or America is relatively small. But the concept of “a very small country” (or microstate) is approximately the same for different regions of the world. Most often it is used in relation to the dwarf countries of foreign Europe - Andorra, Liechtenstein, San Marino, etc. But in fact, many island countries of Africa, America and Oceania are also among the microstates. For example, the Seychelles in Africa, Barbados, Grenada, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in Central America have an area of 350–450 km 20–25 km 2 each. And the Vatican, which covers an area of 44 hectares, can be called a completely mini-state.
Only 13 countries have a population of 50 to 100 million people: Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy and Ukraine in Europe, Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand, Iran and Turkey in Asia, Egypt and Ethiopia in Africa and Mexico in Latin America. In 53 countries, the population ranges from 10 to 50 million people. There are even more countries in the world with a population of 1 to 10 million (60), and in more than 40 countries the population does not even reach 1 million people.
Table 4
THE TEN LARGEST COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD IN POPULATION
As for the smallest states in terms of population, on the political map of the world they need to be looked for in the same place where the smallest territories of the country are located. In Central America, these are, for example, Barbados and Belize with a population of 200-300 thousand people, Grenada, Dominica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, with approximately 100 thousand inhabitants each. In Africa, the same category of countries includes the island states of Sao Tome and Principe and the Seychelles, in Asia - Brunei, in Oceania - the island states of Tuvalu, Nauru, where only 10-12 thousand people live. However, the last place in terms of population is occupied by the Vatican, whose permanent population does not exceed 1000 people.
According to the peculiarities of the geographical position, the countries of the world are most often divided into those with and without access to the oceans. Among the coastal countries, in turn, islands can be distinguished (for example, Ireland and Iceland in Europe, Sri Lanka in Asia, Madagascar in Africa, Cuba in America, New Zealand in Oceania). A variety of island countries are archipelago countries. So, Indonesia is located on 13 thousand islands, the Philippines occupy 7000, and Japan - almost 4000 islands. It is not surprising that the archipelago countries are among the top ten states in terms of coastline length. (tab. 5). Yes, and Canada occupies an uncompetitive first place in this indicator thanks to the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
Table 5
THE TOP TEN COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD BY COASTLINE LENGTH
43 countries do not have access to the World Ocean. Among them are 9 countries of the CIS, 12 - foreign Europe, 5 - Asia, 15 - Africa and 2 countries of Latin America (Table 6).
As a rule, the lack of direct access to the World Ocean is one of the unfavorable features of the country's geographical position.
Table 6
COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD WITHOUT ACCESS TO THE OPEN SEA
Typology of the countries of the world
The typology of the countries of the world is one of the most difficult methodological problems. It is solved by economic geographers, economists, political scientists, sociologists and representatives of other sciences. In contrast to the grouping (classification) of countries, their typology is based not on quantitative, but on qualitative features (criteria) that make it possible to attribute each of them to one or another type of socio-economic and political development. A prominent representative of the economic and geographical school of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences V. V. Volsky country type understood the objectively established relatively stable complex of its inherent conditions and development features, characterizing its role and place in the world community at this stage world history. In other words, in this case we are talking about those main typological features of countries that bring them closer to some and, on the contrary, distinguish them from other countries.
In a sense, the typology of countries is a historical category. Indeed, until the early 1990s 20th century all countries of the world were usually divided into three main types: socialist, capitalist and developing. In the 90s. In the 20th century, after the collapse of the world socialist system, a different, less politicized typology emerged with the division of countries into: 1) economically highly developed; 2) developing; 3) countries with economies in transition, but along with this, the binomial typology of countries is still widespread, dividing them into: 1) economically developed and 2) developing. At the same time, the indicator is usually used as a generalizing, synthetic indicator. gross domestic product(GDP) per capita.
Table 7
COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST GDP PER CAPITA IN THE WORLD (2006)
This very important indicator is not only used to divide countries into these two types, but also gives a vivid picture of the huge gap between the most and least developed countries in the world. (Table 7). In this table, GDP is calculated not at the official exchange rate, but as it has now been accepted: at their purchasing power (PPP).
A more convenient histological classification was proposed by the bank; it comes from the division of countries into three main groups. First, this low income countries, to which the World Bank refers 42 countries of Africa, 15 countries of foreign Asia, 3 countries of Latin America, 1 country of Oceania and 6 countries of the CIS (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan). Secondly, this middle income countries, which, in turn, are subdivided into lower middle income countries(8 countries of foreign Europe, 6 countries of the CIS, 9 countries of foreign Asia, 10 countries of Africa, 16 countries of Latin America and 8 countries of Oceania) and upper middle income countries(6 countries of foreign Europe, 7 countries of foreign Asia, 5 countries of Africa, 16 countries of Latin America). Thirdly, this high income countries, which include 20 countries of foreign Europe, 9 countries of foreign Asia, 3 countries of Africa, 2 countries of North America, 6 countries of Latin America and 6 countries of Oceania. The group of countries with high income looks, perhaps, the most “team”: along with the most highly developed countries in Europe, America and Japan, it includes Malta, Cyprus, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Brunei, the islands of Bermuda, Bahamas, Martinique, Reunion, etc.
The indicator of per capita GDP does not clearly define the boundary between developed and developing countries. For example, some international organizations use $6,000 per capita (at the official exchange rate) as such a quantitative threshold. But if we take it as the basis of a two-term typology, then it turns out that all post-socialist countries with economies in transition fall into the category of developing countries, while Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Brunei, Bahrain, Barbados, and the Bahamas fall into the group of economically developed countries.
That is why scientists-geographers have long been working on creating more advanced typologies of the countries of the world, such that would also take into account the nature of the development of each country and the structure of its GDP, share in world production, the degree of involvement in the international geographical division of labor, some indicators characterizing its population . Representatives of the economic-geographical school of Moscow State University have worked especially hard and are working on the creation of such typologies. M.V. Lomonosov, first of all V.V. Volsky, L.V. Smirnyagin, V.S. Tikunov, A.S. Fetisov.
V. S. Tikunov and A. S. Fetisov, for example, developed a comprehensive assessment-typological approach in the study of foreign (with the exception of post-socialist and socialist) countries, based on 14 indicators that reflect the socio-political and economic aspects of their development. In total, they analyzed data for 142 countries. As a result of this approach, the United States, Canada, Germany, Sweden, Norway are at the highest level of socio-economic development, and Somalia, Guinea, Yemen, Angola, Central African Republic, Haiti and some other countries are at the lowest. (rice. 2).
Rice. 1. Gross domestic product(GDP) in the countries of the world per capita, USD
Rice. 2. Ranking of the countries of the world according to the level of development (according to V. S. Tikunov, A. S. Fetisov, I. A. Rodionova)
VV Volsky developed and improved his typology for a long time. Its last version was published in 1998 and then in 2001.
Table 8 presents this typology in a more visual form.
Introduction
International economic integration is a characteristic feature of the current stage of development of the world economy. At the end of the XX century. it has become a powerful tool for accelerating the development of regional economies and increasing the competitiveness in the world market of countries - members of integration groups. The word "integration" comes from the Latin. integratio - replenishment or integer - whole. International economic integration is a process of coalescence of economies neighboring countries into a single economic complex based on stable economic ties between their companies. The most widespread regional economic integration may in the future become the initial stage of global integration, i. mergers of regional integration associations.
New quantitative and qualitative characteristics are inherent in today's international economic relations. The main forms of world economic relations, international trade, the movement of capital, the migration of the population and labor resources, transnational activities, the actions of international organizations, and finally, the integration processes in the world have reached unprecedented proportions. Their place and role in the development of modern society have changed. The growing importance of international industrial and scientific and technical specialization. It is not accidental, therefore, that the fundamentally different role in the IER of intra-company cooperation within the framework of TNCs, which account for the vast majority of international cooperation exchange, creates stable prerequisites for the steady expansion of the international market.
At the same time, this is a real factor in the development of the integration type of world economic relations. All this predetermines shifts in the geographical, country structure of international trade: the center of gravity in it moves to mutual relations between economically developed countries and groups of countries. Thus, favorable conditions are prepared for the international economic integration of participants with more or less similar levels of development in certain regions of the world.
A sign of the times is a sharp increase in the dynamism and scale of migration of the population, labor resources, leading to the international movement of such an important factor of production as labor. Tens of millions of people are involved in this process. The regions of application of immigrant resources, their qualitative and qualified composition have diversified. In turn, the integration development option facilitates the movement of labor, removing official borders and canceling many formalities. And in this part MPEI creates certain advantages.
The development of integration processes is the most important characteristic of the modern world economy.
The internationalization of economic life in the second half of the 20th century has become the leading trend in the development of the modern world economy. One of the main trends in the global internationalization of the world economy as a result of the development of the international division of labor and international cooperation of production is manifested in the formation of vast zones of influence of one or another power or group of the most developed countries. These countries and groups of states become a kind of integration centers around which other states are grouped, forming a kind of continents in the ocean of world economic relations.
1. The main integration groups of the world
As follows from the analysis of integration theories, its objective nature does not mean that it occurs spontaneously, spontaneously, outside the framework of management by the state and interstate bodies. The formation of regional integration complexes has a contractual and legal basis. Entire groups of countries, on the basis of mutual agreements, unite into regional interstate complexes and pursue a joint regional policy in various spheres of socio-political and economic life.
Among the numerous integration groupings, one can distinguish: in Western Europe - the EU, in North America - NAFTA, in the Asia-Pacific region - ASEAN, in Eurasia - the CIS.
Historically, integration processes were most clearly manifested in Western Europe, where in the second half of the 20th century a single economic space of the whole region was formed, within which general conditions for reproduction were formed and a mechanism for its regulation was created. Here integration has reached its most mature forms.
2. The main economic groupings of the countries of the modern world
Regional economic groupings:
EU - European Community
NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement
ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Latin American Integration Association
Caribbean Commonwealth and Common Market (CARICAM)
Commonwealth of Independent States
Industry economic groupings:
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)
.1 European Economic Community (EEC)
The unification of a number of European states that are striving for economic integration with a partial renunciation of their national sovereignties. The European Economic Community was legally formalized by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and initially included six countries: Germany. France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy. In 1973, it included England, Denmark and Ireland, in 1981 - Greece, in 1986 - Spain and Portugal. The economic policy of the EEC is based on the following principles: free trade exchange, free migration of labor, freedom to choose a place of residence, freedom to provide services, free movement of capital and free payment turnover. The first step towards the implementation of these principles was the creation of a free trade zone, which involved the mutual abolition of customs duties, export and import quotas, and other foreign trade restrictions. At the same time, a unified customs policy began to be pursued in relation to third countries that are not members of the EEC (the so-called "customs union"). The main obstacle to this is the existence of different tax systems with different tax rates, primarily in the field of indirect taxes. An important stage in the development of the Common Market was the creation of the European Monetary System. Although in this case, the desire of most EEC member countries to pursue their own independent monetary policy is most obvious. In addition to the EEC, there is the European Coal and Steel Community, as well as the European Atomic Energy Community. These three associations are known as the European Communities (EC). There are a number of supranational bodies that govern the European Economic Community: the Council of Ministers (the legislature); Commission of the European Communities (executive); European Parliament (supervises the activities of the Commission and approves the budget); Court of the European Communities (highest judicial body); European Council (it consists of the heads of government of the member countries of the EEC); European Political Cooperation (a committee composed of 15 foreign ministers and one member of the Commission of the European Communities). The strengthening of the role of the latter body testifies to the desire of the participating countries not only for economic, but also for political integration. At present , 15 countries are members of the European Community .
Differences in the levels of economic development of the EU countries and in the degree of their desire to participate in integrated areas led back in the 80s to the emergence of the idea of a Europe of "concentric circles" and a Europe with "variable geometry", and further discussed and developed. However, they became most relevant when the issue of accession to the EU of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) arose.
At the European Council session in Copenhagen in June 1993, it was decided that the Associated Member States of CEE who wished to join the EU could do so as soon as they were in a position to meet the relevant requirements.
The most persistent advocate for the early inclusion of the Central and Eastern European countries in the EU is Germany, which is rapidly expanding its influence in these countries and actively developing their markets. Experts from seven scientific institutions, including the German Society for Foreign Policy, have concluded that unstable countries in the eastern part of the continent, if they are not admitted to the EU in time, may require emergency measures of billions of dollars in aid, in addition, there may be a new split between East and West, accompanied by the threat of strengthening nationalist tendencies on both sides and the emergence of ethnic and ideological conflicts.
Many European politicians believe that the European Union itself will receive a guarantee against economic collapse and the establishment of authoritarian regimes in this zone from the expansion of its borders to the east, which would threaten not only a number of European politicians directly, but also a greater balance within the Union itself, primarily considering the growing strength of Germany. This is especially important as the Franco-German tandem has been starting to falter lately. In addition, in this way, not only Germany, but also other EU member states would consolidate their influence in this part of Europe, although now 50% of the trade of Central and Eastern European countries is with Western countries. In this regard, it should be borne in mind that, according to Western economists, Central Europe may soon become one of the most rapidly developing parts of the continent.
There are so-called integrated programs that have been started as an experiment since 1979. The main goals of integrated programs are a coordinated approach to solving similar problems in different regions. The Mediterranean programs can serve as an example. Countries with adjacent regions are coordinating their actions for the development of these regions; funds from EEC structural funds, such as the Fund for Industrial Restructuring, have been attracted.
The main sources of funding for EU programs are:
1. European Monetary Cooperation Fund
Mutual lending of national securities
The main EU lending instruments are:
1. Foreign exchange intervention.
Short-term currency support (up to 75 days, can be repeated at short intervals).
Medium term lending.
Long-term assistance up to 5 years.
.2 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
It has been operating since 1984 and is the largest regional association. The population is 373 million people, in the EU - about 345 million. The total GDP of NAFTA is approximately 7 tron. USD. NAFTA is based on principles different from the EU, the main ones being:
· phased, within 15 years, elimination of customs duties and non-trade restrictions;
· liberalization of the investment regime;
· ensuring a high level of intellectual property protection;
· development of a joint program to combat environmental pollution.
The unconditional initiative and leadership in the creation of NAFTA belongs to the United States (the economic potential of GDP is 100%). The agreement also includes Canada (economic potential of GDP 9.4%) and Mexico (economic potential of GDP 5.5%).
The desire of the United States to integrate with partners under the agreement is due to the following circumstances:
a) The combination of high scientific and technological potential with low wage costs (for example, in Mexico, the average salary in 1985 was 14% of the average salary in the United States).
b) The integration of the USA and Canada is carried out in the absence of special institutional structures. 20% of Canada's GNP is sold in the US, i.е. 60-70% of Canada's exports. Canada is the US's largest trading partner (about 25% of US exports or about 1% of GNP). For American corporations, Canada is the main object of investment, the volume of investments in 1992 amounted to 56 billion USD in 1992.
The development of integration was the signing in 1988 of an agreement on the creation of a free trade area between the United States and Canada - CAFTA, which implies the complete elimination of barriers to trade between the United States and Canada, the development of joint mechanisms governing joint competition, the creation of supranational judicial and arbitration bodies, the adoption of significant relaxations restrictions on US investment in Canada.
A large-scale rapprochement between the US and Mexico began in 1989 and was characterized by the processes of privatization, shock therapy, attracting foreign investors, and liberalizing foreign trade. 80% of all foreign investment in the Mexican economy came from the United States.
Thus, NAFTA is characterized by the following features:
Asymmetric character, stemming from the fact that the United States accounts for about 85% of the GDP and industrial production of the three countries.
Asymmetry in levels of development between highly developed countries (USA and Canada) and developing Mexico.
Asymmetry in the intensity of bilateral economic relations (USA - Canada, USA - Mexico), lack of mature economic relations between Canada and Mexico. Thus, Mexico's share in Canada's WTO in 1993 was just over 1%.
The economic effect of NAFTA is based on a sharp increase in US exports, and hence the increase in employment (in 1994, US exports increased by 17.5% just from the creation of NAFTA). The transfer of labor-intensive, knowledge-intensive and dirty industries to Mexico will reduce production costs and increase the competitiveness of goods (GM, FORD, Crysler intend to increase capital investments in Mexico, thereby increasing profits by more than 10%). Large financial injections are expected due to the liberalization of capital migration (up to 8% of Mexico's GDP).
.3 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Established in 1967 as an agreement between 5 countries - Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia. In 1984, Brunei joined the association, followed by Vietnam in 1995.
ASEAN is the most influential grouping among the developing countries. Serious economic cooperation began to develop in 1976, from the moment the Declaration of Consent and the Program of Action were adopted, and implied 4 areas of mutual economic cooperation:
· Preferential access to goods within the framework of mutual trade fuel and food;
· Cooperation in the field of trade (with joint access to foreign markets and markets of third countries);
· Industrial cooperation;
· Economic ties development of a common position on economic problems of common interest to all members.
In the course of the work of the Association in 1977, a zone of preferential trade for 20 goods was created. A year later, the number of goods was increased to 70, with an average preference of 20-25%. After 1989, preferences were increased to 50% for 12,700 commodity items. The first free trade zone project was implemented in 1987, and in 1989 the concept of creating triangles of economic growth was created (at the suggestion of the Minister of Economy of Singapore). The first "triangle" includes: Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia (the last two have administrative and economic regions). It was called the "Southern Triangle". In 1992, the Singapore Summit of the ASEAN member countries took place, at which a decision was made to create an AVTA free trade zone. It should be created by 2008 (within 15 years) through the elimination of duties in mutual trade in manufactured and processed agricultural products (duties on some goods up to 5%). Within the framework of industrial cooperation, only one project was carried out - the construction of a plant for the production of chemical fertilizer.
Within the framework of ABTA, it is planned to carry out the abolition of duties, the elimination of quantitative restrictions, the harmonization of national standards, the mutual recognition of quality certificates, the elimination of restrictions on the movement of capital, and consultations on the implementation of macroeconomic policy in order to coordinate the latter. To date, Malaysia has reduced or eliminated duties on 2,600 goods in mutual trade. Indonesia and the Philippines lifted restrictions on foreign investment in energy and telecommunications services. Thailand has lifted restrictions on the import of cars.
The main economic effect of the association is based on the creation of a large united market with a total population of 330 million people and an annual cumulative GDP of 300 billion USD, as well as encouraging third-country investors to invest in ASEAN (duty-free capital injection) .
.4 Latin American Integration Association (LAI)
a large integration group, created in 1980, replaced the LAST that existed before that, which existed from 1961 to 1980.
The goal of the LAI is the creation of a Latin American common market on the basis of the LAST (FTA) already established during the years of its existence.
Members of the organization are 11 countries, divided into 3 groups:
· more developed (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico);
· medium level (Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Uruguay, Chile);
· the least developed (Bolivia, Paraguay, Ecuador).
The members of the LAI have concluded an agreement on preferential trade among themselves and less developed countries are given preferences by more developed countries.
The supreme body of the LAI is the Council of Foreign Ministers, the executive body - the Conference of Assessments and Rapprochement - studies the levels of economic development, possible directions of integration, its impact on the economy, develops the stages and tasks of integration processes; meets once a year. The permanent body is the Committee of Representatives. Headquarters - in Montevideo (Uruguay).
grouping economic integration union
2.5 Caribbean Commonwealth and Common Market (CARICOM)
It is the most stable group. Created in 1973, on the basis of an agreement signed in Trinidad and Tobago, it includes 16 Caribbean countries and, unlike all integration groups, unites not only independent states, but also dependent territories.
CARICOM is based on an earlier FTA. It has various sub-regional branches; the most advanced in terms of regional integration are:
Caribbean Common Market within CARICOM, where trade restrictions between Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Jamaica and Antigua have been completely eliminated. These countries have approved a single customs tariff for goods from third countries, i.е. it is actually a customs union based on industrial raw materials. A third of mutual trade is oil products.
the Eastern Caribbean Common Market, which includes the least developed countries; it tends to create a common currency and a joint central bank.
In the 1970s and 1980s, CARICOM experienced crisis phenomena associated with the oil and general economic crises, which increased external debt. Positive changes are taking place at the moment.
In 1992, members of the Commonwealth achieved a sharp drop in customs duties (by approximately 70%). Particularly successful is the integration in the field of regulation of agricultural production (document "Time to act"). A new model of integration was proposed based on the trend towards less government intervention. Since 1995, free movement of citizens and the abolition of the passport regime have been introduced on the territory of the Commonwealth.
2.6 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
Created December 8, 1991. The agreement on its creation was signed by the leaders of the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. On December 21, 1991, in Alma-Ata, the heads of eleven sovereign states (except the Baltic states and Georgia) signed the Protocol to this Agreement, in which they emphasized that the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Republic of Armenia, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation , the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, the Republic of Uzbekistan and Ukraine on an equal basis form the Commonwealth of Independent States. The meeting participants unanimously adopted the Alma-Ata Declaration, which confirmed the commitment of the former Soviet republics to cooperation in various areas of foreign and domestic policy, proclaiming guarantees for the fulfillment of the international obligations of the former USSR. Later, in December 1993, Georgia joined the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth of Independent States operates on the basis of the Charter adopted by the Council of Heads of State on January 22, 1993.
The Commonwealth of Independent States is not a state and does not have supranational powers. In September 1993, the heads of state of the Commonwealth of Independent States signed the Treaty on the Establishment of the Economic Union, which laid down the concept of transforming economic interaction within the Commonwealth of Independent States, taking into account the realities that had developed in it. The basis of the Treaty is the understanding by its participants of the need to form a common economic space based on the free movement of goods, services, labor, capital; development of a coordinated monetary, tax, price, customs, foreign economic policy; convergence of methods of regulation of economic activity, creation of favorable conditions for the development of direct industrial relations.
At a meeting in Bishkek (1998), the heads of government approved a program of priority actions for the formation of a single economic space, which stipulates actions for the convergence of legislation, customs and transport tariffs, and the interaction of industries and enterprises of the three republics.
Also, specific projects are being developed to create new consortiums in the field of oil and gas, exploration, and the agro-industrial complex.
At the beginning of 2000, 283 million people lived in the CIS, mainly residents of five states - Russia (146 million), Ukraine (50 million), Kazakhstan (15 million), Uzbekistan (24 million) and Belarus ( 10 million). The remaining seven countries - Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan - account for just over 36 million people.
The countries of the alliance have recently pumped out more than 400 million tons of oil a year from their bowels. This is over 10% of the world's annual production. Gas in the CIS produces almost a third of the world's volumes, coal 500 million tons, or almost 12% of world production. The Commonwealth countries produce 11% of the world's electricity, 15% of primary aluminum, about 30% of nickel, over 10% of copper, more than 11% of mineral fertilizers, smelt almost 11% of steel, the supply of which to third countries is 16% world steel exports. About 20% of the arms market falls on the CIS states, and 12% of the world's scientists work in the research centers of the Commonwealth, which indicates that the Commonwealth has a scientific base sufficient for development in due measure.
Thus, the CIS states have the most powerful natural, industrial, scientific and technical potential. According to foreign experts, the potential market capacity of the CIS countries is about 1600 billion dollars, and they determine the achieved level of production within 500 billion dollars.
The growth of GDP and industrial production on the territory of the CIS are important trends in the development of the participating countries, their relations and, accordingly, the economic integration of the Commonwealth countries. So, for example, over the ten months of 2000, compared to the same period last year, GDP in most countries grew by 4-10%, in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan it rose by 10.5%, in Armenia and Kyrgyzstan - by 4, in Belarus and Ukraine - by 5%, in Tajikistan - by 8.3%, and in Georgia it was 99.8% of the previously achieved level. Industrial production increased by an average of 9.7% (poles - Kazakhstan - 15.3% and Moldova - 2.3%). In Ukraine, this figure is 11.9%, in Tajikistan - 10.4%, in Russia - 9.8%, in Belarus - 8.6%, in Kyrgyzstan - 7.9%, in Azerbaijan - 6.3%, in Georgia - 6.2%. True, the high level of these and some other indicators is largely due to the low base of comparison. The total volume of mutual trade between the CIS countries over the first 9 months of 2000 exceeded $43 billion, which is 39% more than in 1999, incl. exports by 41%, imports - by 38%. This rapid increase occurred largely due to the exorbitant rise in prices of industrial producers. In Belarus they almost tripled, in Uzbekistan - by 57%, in Tajikistan and Kazakhstan - by 45-47%, in other countries (except for Armenia and Georgia, where the growth was expressed by 0.9% and 6%, respectively), 30-39%.
.7 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
voluntary intergovernmental economic organization, the task and main goal of which is to coordinate and unify the oil policy of its member states.
OPEC is looking for ways to ensure the stabilization of prices for petroleum products in the world and international oil markets in order to avoid fluctuations in oil prices that have harmful consequences for OPEC member states. The main goal is also to return to Member States their investment in the oil industry with a profit.
In 1960, in Baghdad, the main suppliers of oil to the world market - Venezuela, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia - founded the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). OPEC was registered with the United Nations on September 6, 1962 (UN Resolution No. 6363). The OPEC charter was approved at the 2nd conference in Caracas on January 15-21, 1961. In 1965, the charter was completely revised. Later, numerous changes and additions were also made to it. OPEC now accounts for about 40% of world oil production. Initially, the headquarters of OPEC was in Geneva (Switzerland), but then moved to Vienna (Austria).
Later, after the creation of the organization, it included Qatar (1961), Indonesia and Libya (1962), the United Arab Emirates (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973). ) and Gabon (1975).
In addition to the desire to increase oil revenues, and ultimately establish national control over the oil industry, OPEC members were also united by the fact that they were developing countries, whose economy was financed mainly by oil, and were exploited by the oil cartel in principle for basis of identical unequal concession agreements. |
Currently, OPEC consists of 11 states (Gabon ceased its membership in 1995, and Ecuador in 1992).
OPEC declares the following main goals:
1.Coordination and unification of the oil policy of the Member States.
2.Determination of the most effective individual and collective means of protecting their interests.
3.Ensuring price stability on world oil markets.
4.Attention to the interests of oil producing countries and the need to ensure:
· sustainable income of oil producing countries,
· efficient, cost-effective and regular supply of consumer countries,
· fair returns on investments in the oil industry,
· environmental protection for present and future generations,
· cooperation with non-OPEC countries in order to implement initiatives to stabilize the world oil market.
The structure of OPEC consists of the Conference, Committees, Board of Governors, Secretariat, Secretary General and Economic Commission of OPEC.
The supreme body of OPEC is the Conference, consisting of delegations (up to two delegates, advisers, observers) representing member states. The board of directors can be compared to the board of directors in a business enterprise or corporation. The Economic Commission is a specialized structural division of OPEC operating within the Secretariat, whose task is to assist the organization in stabilizing the oil market. The Inter-Ministerial Monitoring Committee monitors (annual statistics) the situation and proposes to the conference action to address the relevant problems. The OPEC Secretariat functions as the headquarters. He is responsible for the execution of the organization's executive functions in accordance with the provisions of the OPEC Charter and the directives of the Board of Governors.
In 1976, OPEC organized the OPEC International Development Fund (headquartered in Vienna, originally this organization was called the OPEC Special Fund). It is a multilateral development finance institution that promotes cooperation between OPEC member states and other developing countries.
A special place in the export of capital from OPEC member countries is occupied by assistance and loans to other developing countries. Unlike funds recycled to the West, OPEC assistance is an instrument of an independent national policy in the field of capital outflow.
OPEC member countries provide assistance mainly through bilateral or regional relations. Some of the funds go to developing countries through the mediation of the IMF and IBRD.
.8 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and European Atomic Energy Community (EUROATOM)
This is an industry integration organization, which, along with the European Community and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), is part of the European Union. The members of the ECSC are the same 15 countries, and the governing bodies of the association (since 1967) are the same as for the European Community and Euratom. The headquarters of the ECSC is located in Brussels. The agreement on the establishment of the ECSC was signed in Paris on April 18, 1951 for a period of 50 years, entered into force on August 25, 1952. The official goal of the ECSC was to create a common market for the products of the coal and metallurgical industries of the member countries; promotion of rational placement, expansion and modernization of production in these industries; ensuring free access to production resources and normal conditions of competition in the intra-regional trade in coal and steel.
Thus, the ECSC bodies have the power to regulate the production and marketing of coal and steel in member countries. The association controls almost all coal mining, over 90% of iron and steel smelting, about half of iron ore production in Western Europe. The formation of a common market for coal and steel was completed in 1957. The experience of the ECSC was used in the creation of the European Communities.
In subsequent years, the activities of the ECSC were aimed primarily at overcoming the consequences of a chronic structural crisis in the coal mining and ferrous metallurgy industries (including measures to reduce the production capacity of the steel-smelting enterprises of the member countries). The budget of the ECSC, which is part of the common budget of the three communities, amounted to 262 million ECU in 1996, of which 117 million was allocated for the payment of benefits and retraining of workers, 85 million for scientific research in order to modernize and increase the efficiency of production, ECU 40 million for business conversions.
The European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), one of the European Communities, was created by 6 member states in 1958 with the aim of pooling the resources of nuclear raw materials and nuclear energy of the member countries. Headquarters in Brussels. In accordance with the Treaty, the European Atomic Energy Community is engaged in scientific and technical research and dissemination of technical knowledge in the field of atomic energy; develops uniform safety standards to protect public health; promotes investment in nuclear energy and oversees the proper use of nuclear materials. For these purposes, a number of specialized bodies have been created within the European Atomic Energy Community: the Supply Agency (it has the exclusive right to conclude contracts for the supply of fissile materials both inside and outside the Community), the Advisory Committee in the field of nuclear research, the Scientific and Technical Committee, as well as the Joint Research Center, which includes 9 institutes studying the safety of reactor operation, nuclear fuel processing and radioactive waste disposal, the interaction of nuclear energy with the environment, biological protection, etc. The European Atomic Energy Community maintains close contacts with international organizations , such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO) and others, and also has cooperation agreements with the United States, Canada and some other countries. Financing of the activities of the European Atomic Energy Community is carried out at the expense of the general budget of the EU, as well as by placing loans on the capital market.
Conclusion
The nature of international economic integration has always been based on the processes of international specialization of labor and production. But one thing is the practice of division of labor and specialization within the country, regulated by the system of state domestic economic policy (taxes, customs duties, state orders, prices, and other measures). And another thing is the relatively spontaneous development of the international division of labor within the framework of international economic cooperation, where the laws of not social expediency or technological necessity rule today, but, above all, the laws of force (any form of its manifestation), from the position of which the prospect of integration is “planned” into the world system. More priority for strong countries are political (economic) interests in order to maintain a high level of their socio-economic stability, competitiveness and market saturation in the corresponding region of the world.
At the same time, the objective process of organizing and developing new industries (for example, space, aircraft construction, mining and processing of polymetals and other raw materials deep underground or on the ocean shelves) is associated with huge expenditures on scientific research, experimental design, etc. (for example, the construction of the international space station "Alpha" (USA, Western Europe and Russia), construction of a transport tunnel across the English Channel (France and England), etc.). All this makes us take a fresh look at the expediency and constructiveness of international cooperation.
Europe went to its economic union half a century. For many years, a free trade zone was formed in North America. World integration associations did not emerge overnight in Asia and Latin America. But to this day, they are forced to work together to overcome many contradictions in order to move step by step towards common geostrategic guidelines.
The CIS countries do not have such time in reserve. At the turn of the new millennium, in the face of a new historical challenge, they received a unique opportunity to find their rightful place in the world. Critical reflection on the years spent together, mutual tolerance and trust, joint desire for mutually acceptable solutions allow us to look into the future with optimism, if only because any other path is a return to the past, it is a path to nowhere.
Bibliography
1.Features of economic integration in the countries of the Western Hemisphere. // Biki. 2001. No. 144 p. 4 - 5.
2.Avdokushin E.F. "International Economic Relations": Textbook, ed. "Lawyer" 2001 Moscow.
3.Impact of the downturn in the US economy on emerging markets in Asia and Latin America. // BIKI. 2001. No. 44 p. 1, 4.
4.Interaction of Latin American states with third countries and other integration groups. // BIKI. 2001. No. 147
5."World Economy": Textbook. Ed. prof. A.S. Bulatov. ed. "Lawyer" 2000 Moscow.
6.Lomakin V.K. World economy. Moscow: UNITI Publishing House, 1998.
7."OPEC in modern international economic relations" International relations. 1990
."International organizations" Dictionary-reference book. International relationships. 1999
.“International economic relations. Integration": Textbook. Manual for universities Yu.A. Shcherbanin, K.L. Rozhkov, V.E. Rybalkin, G. Fischer, ed. "Banks and Exchanges", "UNITI" 1997 Moscow.
10.Kireev A.P. "International Economics" ed. "International Relations" 1999 Moscow.
Job order
Our experts will help you write a paper with a mandatory check for uniqueness in the Anti-plagiarism system
Submit an application with the requirements right now to find out the cost and possibility of writing.
