Port(French port, from Latin portus - harbor, pier) is a water transport point equipped with facilities and devices necessary to perform loading and unloading operations, serve passengers, ensure the safe parking of ships and their maintenance.
As a transport point, the port provides a link between several types of transport - water, rail, and road. In the port, operations are carried out for the transfer of goods from land to water transport and vice versa.
To ensure the performance of its functions, the port must have a water area (water part), territory (coastal part) and a mooring front.
water area port is the water area necessary for the arrangement of raids designed for the safe parking of ships awaiting processing, and for the convenient movement of ships to berths, filling and repair points.
The composition of the water area usually includes water approaches to the port, raids and inland basins. Water approaches can be natural (in the form of a section of the sea or river) or artificial (with the device of approach channels connecting the port with natural depths). Raids are sections of the water area protected from heavy waves, where ships can anchor while waiting for permission to approach the berths or leave the port. In the absence of deep-water berths in the port, reloading operations are also carried out in the roads, for which auxiliary shallow-draft vessels are used - lighters and barges. Inland pools (sometimes called harbors or port pools), adjacent directly to the port area, are intended for mooring ships at the berths; they produce the main and some auxiliary cargo operations.
If necessary, the port water area is fenced off with special hydraulic structures to protect it from waves, currents and sediments. The ship's passage in the water area must be furnished with signs of the ship's situation and have a depth sufficient for the movement of settlement ships. Sometimes special pools are arranged within the water area (for example, at shipyards and ship-lifting structures).
The area of the port water area should be sufficient for maneuvering ships entering and leaving the port, convenient for mooring in the roadstead and safe for mooring at the berths, as well as for local maneuvering of ships when approaching and leaving the berths. Usually this area is determined by constructing possible lines of movement of ships to each berth with the required turning radius of the calculated vessel.
Territory ports - areas of land adjacent to the water area, where port facilities and devices are located that ensure the implementation of the main function of the port - cargo transshipment, passenger service, service of ships and their crews.
mooring front - a section of the coastline equipped with appropriate devices and equipment for the safe parking of ships and the performance of transshipment operations.
Berthing lines can be located frontally (along the shore), along piers, on piers protruding into the water area, as well as along internal coastal basins. The location of the berths should ensure, on the one hand, the convenience of the approach and mooring of ships, and on the other hand, the possibility of servicing the berths by rail and road transport.
Operational platforms, warehouses and access roads are located on the territory of the port and near the berthing front. In addition, buildings for passenger service (sea station, river station), electrical substations, repair shops, garages, logistics facilities, administrative and amenity premises can be located on the port territory. Sometimes shipyards, marshalling railway yards and wagon lagoons are located on or near the port area.
The size of the port territory is determined from the condition of convenient placement of port facilities, equipment, access roads and intra-port railway and road routes.
The main technical characteristics of the port are the depth at the berth, the length of the berthing line and the elevation of the port area. The depth at the berth is measured from the lowest navigable water level and is determined by the estimated draft of the vessels and the depth reserve under the keel of the vessel. In modern seaports, the depth at the berths for dry cargo ships is 10-15 m, for oil tankers - 15-20 m. The length of the berthing line determines the number of ships that can simultaneously berth and be processed. The number of berths is set separately for each category of cargo. In addition to the berths required for carrying out cargo and passenger operations, the ports also provide for auxiliary berths serving bunkering, parking of the auxiliary fleet and ship repair. The elevation of the port area (elevation above the water level) is chosen in such a way that the port area is not flooded when the level is high and the most favorable conditions are created for carrying out cargo and other operations. The mark of the cordon part of the port territory is, as a rule, constant, which facilitates the movement of railway transport.
To ensure the operation of the port, hydraulic structures are arranged in it. The main port hydraulic structures are:
berthing facilities;
protective structures;
bank protection structures;
ship repair facilities;
navigation facilities.
Berthing facilities should ensure convenient and safe parking of vessels during loading and unloading operations. There are two main types of berthing structures: floating and coastal (embankments).
Mooring embankments in cross section can have various shapes (Fig.):
vertical;
sloping;
semi-sloping;
semi-vertical.
Cross profiles of the coastal mooring line:
a - vertical; b - sloping; in - semi-sloping; g - semi-vertical
Vertical ones are most convenient for mooring and parking of ships. However, with a large depth of the water area and a large amplitude of fluctuations in the water level, it is necessary to arrange a high-altitude embankment, and this is quite expensive.
Vertical mooring embankments:
a - from massive masonry; b – from giant arrays; c - pile with sheet pile wall and anchors; d - pile with a sheet pile wall and inclined piles
1 - stone bed; 2 - concrete arrays; 3 - mooring and fender frame; 4 - reinforced concrete massif-giant; 5 - sheet piles; 6 - anchor rod; 7 - anchor plate; 8 - wooden piles; 9 - reinforced concrete grillage; 10 - soil backfill
Sloping embankments are the cheapest, but they are less convenient for mooring and parking, and cranes with a long reach are needed to load onto ships docked at such embankments. For the convenience of parking and mooring of ships at such embankments, intermediate floating berths in the form of metal pontoons are often used.
The semi-sloping and semi-vertical embankments are intermediate in terms of operating conditions compared to the vertical and sloping embankments.
By design, vertical embankments are gravity and pile (Fig.). At the same time, gravitational ones are: ryazhevy, from massive masonry, from giant arrays and prefabricated.
The embankment of massive masonry under water is made up of large concrete blocks (10 tons or more each). In the surface part, a monolithic reinforced concrete belt is arranged - a grillage, with mooring devices (fenders, mooring bollards, eyelets, etc.).
Embankments of giant massifs are made from prefabricated hollow reinforced concrete sections 15–30 m long and of the required height. They are delivered afloat to the place of installation, then, filling with water, they are lowered onto the prepared base and filled with sand or gravel.
Pile embankments are made in the form of a solid wall of metal or reinforced concrete sheet pile, held by metal anchor rods fixed in anchor plates. From the side of the coast, the embankment is filled up to the mark of the port area.
Protective structures , protecting the port water area from waves of water are breakwaters and piers. Their construction requires a lot of money, therefore, when constructing ports, they try to use well-protected natural bays, bays, lagoons, etc. to accommodate the port. According to the shape of the transverse profile and the principle of damping waves, protective structures are (Fig.):
sloping;
with vertical walls;
through;
floating.
External protective structures:
a - from the ground with the fastening of the slopes with a stone; b - from stone and concrete arrays;
c - from giant arrays on a stone bed
Bank protection structures designed to protect sections of the coast from erosion by waves and currents. They are of sloping and semi-sloping type (Fig.).
In addition to the longitudinal coastal fortifications, transverse structures (groons) are sometimes built, which adjoin either the longitudinal fortification or the unprotected coast. Such groins contribute to the deposition of sediments, build up the coastline and weaken the wave action on the coast.
For periodic inspection and repair of the underwater part of ships, ship repair hydraulic structures : docks, boathouses and slips.
Docks are designed for complete drainage of the underwater part of the vessel, they are of two types - floating and dry.
Sloping and semi-sloping coastal fortifications:
a - stone pavement; b - semi-sloping reinforcement with a persistent pile row;
c - slope reinforcement of riprap and concrete slabs; d - special coastal fortification
A floating dock is a metal or reinforced concrete box structure consisting of a bottom and vertical walls. Inside the bottom and walls there are chambers (compartments) that can be filled with water and emptied with the help of pumps. When the compartments are filled, the structure is immersed in water, and the ship can enter such a dock. Then the ship is fixed in the dock and the water is pumped out of the compartments. The dock rises along with the ship, and the underwater part of the ship is above the water level.
Strengthening the coastline with transverse structures:
a - groins adjacent to the unprotected coast;
b - groins adjacent to the longitudinal dam
1 - groins; 2 - longitudinal dam; 3 - backfill; 4 - sediment deposits
Dry dock is a closed pool (chamber) with entrance gates or gates. After entering the ship's dock, water is pumped out of it, and the underwater part of the ship is available for inspection and repair.
Longitudinal boathouses and transverse slipways are used to lift ships out of the water.
Boathouse is an inclined plane with rail tracks and a longitudinal bogie. The ship floats on a trolley that is under water, and then this trolley with the help of a winch is moved along the rails up to land.
Cross slips allow you to lift and repair several ships.
Small vessels for inspection and repair can be lifted by powerful harbor cranes.
TO navigation port hydraulic structures include sea beacons and signs of navigational conditions located within the port water area.
Scheme of a major port:
1 - port water area; 2 – port area; 3 - breakwater; 4 - pier; 5 - pier;
6 - embankment: 7 - swimming pool; 8 - lighthouse; 9 - port lights; 10 - pre-port railway station
Floating dock
Floating dock
Floating dock in Sevastopol
Floating dock
Aircraft carrier in dry dock. In the background is a floating dock
dry dock
Inside the dry dock - a submarine
Ports are classified according to several criteria:
by appointment;
by cargo turnover;
by location;
by annual duration of operation;
in relation to the water level;
in relation to international trade.
By appointment ports can be divided into:
commercial;
refuge ports.
transport;
transport ports, intended for the transfer of goods and passengers from one mode of transport to another, can be divided into ports general purpose, in which a wide variety of cargoes are processed and passengers are transferred, and special ports designed for the processing of any one cargo (coal, ore, oil, timber, etc.). As a rule, special ports have powerful high-performance transshipment devices that serve to process only one type of cargo.
Devices for reloading other types of cargo and passenger berths in special ports, if they exist, are of secondary importance.
Often there are also special passenger ports in which cargo operations are limited to reloading luggage.
In ports general purpose various loads are reloaded, and reloading devices are more versatile. The largest domestic and foreign ports are general purpose ports.
Military ports or fleet bases are dedicated to serving the navy. They are characterized by the presence of large roads, pools for ship repair, special warehouses for military equipment and food. Extensive barracks are often located on the territory of a military port. For the defense of the port there are fortifications and other engineering structures.
commercial ports, of which fishing ports have received the most development, are equipped with refrigerator warehouses and include processing enterprises. Such ports, being the bases of the fishing fleet, have, as a rule, their own ship repair facilities.
Ports of refuge as the name implies, they are intended for shelter during a storm of ships that are not designed for the action of large waves. As a rule, natural bays and lagoons are used for ports of refuge, with a minimum amount of dredging in them to create raids. In some cases, protective structures are erected to create protected raids. The maximum distance between ports of refuge is determined from the condition that ships and rafts can reach them, being at any point of the shipping route, from the moment they receive a signal about a suitable storm. Ports of refuge also include special enclosed water areas near navigation facilities in the upper pools of reservoirs (the so-called outports), where ships settle in anticipation of locking into the downstream or entering the reservoir.
Cargo turnover is the total amount of processed cargo in tons. The cargo turnover includes all cargoes that arrived at the port by water and sent from it by water for a certain time (for navigation, for a month, for a day). Cargo turnover also includes cargo transshipped from one ship to another. The total cargo turnover of the port usually has a heterogeneous structure and a significant unevenness in time.
The cargo turnover of the port must correspond to its throughput- the weight of the goods processed per unit of time. If cargo turnover is the actual amount of cargo processed by the port (depending on the location of the port, the flow of goods in the region, etc.), then throughput- this is the technical ability of all berths of the port to skip (load and unload) a certain amount of cargo in a certain time. Obviously, in order to ensure efficient and uniform operation of the port, its throughput must be greater than or at least equal to the cargo turnover.
Depending on the cargo and passenger turnover, all ports are divided into several categories. According to the category of the port, the administrative structure of the port and its operational staff, the costs of its operation and repair work, the volume of work for its development, the class of main structures, the marks of the territory and the estimated water levels are determined. In view of the unequal labor intensity of processing various cargoes, the port category is determined by the cargo turnover in conditional tons. There are tables for converting goods of various nature (for example, timber, oil, crushed stone, containers), including passengers, into conditional tons.
Seaports, depending on the annual cargo turnover, are divided into three main categories:
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The nature of the turnover |
annual cargo turnover, thousand tons |
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A. General purpose ports |
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General cargo turnover |
Over 1400 |
600 or less |
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Cargo turnover for general and timber cargo |
100 or less |
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B. Special purpose ports transshipping: |
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a) bulk cargo (coal, ore) |
Over 4500 |
3000 or less |
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b) inert mineral building materials |
Over 10000 |
7000 or less |
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If the cargo turnover of the transport hub does not exceed 50 thousand tons for navigation, or if it is intended only for the transfer of passengers of local and suburban lines, then it is called pier. From the point of view of the classification, the marinas belong to the IV category of ports. Non-category ports of the Russian Federation include St. Petersburg, Novorossiysk and Nakhodkinsky.
By location distinguish between sea and river ports.
In its turn seaports there are:
estuarine;
coastal;
lagoon;
internal.
Estuary ports characterized by the fact that sea and river waterways converge in them. Almost all the largest ports in the world (St. Petersburg, London, New York, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp, etc.) are located at the mouths of rivers. Port devices are located, as a rule, along the banks of the river or in pools dug in the shore. At the same time, ports tend to be located at some distance from the sea in order to avoid the construction of protective structures.
Schemes of location of seaports:
a - in the lagoon; b - in a protected bay; c - in a semi-protected bay;
d - on the open coast
1 – port territory; 2 – port water area; 3 - pier; 4 - approach channel;
Coastal seaports are created on the open sea coast, and to protect their water areas and moorings from waves, it is necessary to build protective structures (for example, the ports of Marseille and Odessa). The length of these structures in ports on sandy coasts is measured in kilometers. If the port is located in a natural, partially protected bay, then the length of the protective structures is reduced.
Lagoon ports located in the depths of the lagoons formed on sandy shores due to the deposition of natural spits separating the lagoons from the sea. Such ports do not need protection from waves, but they have approach channels where it is necessary to maintain depths by removing sediment by dredging (the port of Ilyichevsk near Odessa, the Iranian port of Pahlavi).
Internal ports they are placed at a considerable distance from the sea on the lower (deep-water) sections of the rivers (for example, Arkhangelsk, Kherson, Nikolaev, Rouen) or on artificial channels dug from the sea inland (Manchester, Amsterdam, Brussels).
River ports by appointment are divided into:
special;
outports;
refuge ports.
General and special ports are designed for the transfer of cargo from ships to shore and back. In outports located on reservoirs (in the upper pools of locks), the compositions of ships or rafts are re-formed before entering them into the lock chamber; outports are also used for laying ships and rafts arriving from the downstream to the upstream during a storm. Sometimes an outport and a general port (Kuibyshevsky, Tsimlyansky, etc.) are simultaneously protected by the same protective structures. Ports of refuge serve only to lay ships and rafts during a storm; they are usually created in natural bays; berthing structures in them, as a rule, are not arranged.
Ports are classified by location:
on free rivers, a characteristic feature of which are significant fluctuations in the water level (up to 15 m or more);
on shipping channels, in which the amplitude of level fluctuations is always small;
reservoir and lake ports, which are exposed to wind waves and require, as a rule, protective structures (these ports have much in common with sea ports).
Channel ports on free rivers usually have 2 raids in the water area (arrival raid and departure raid), on which towed trains are disbanded or formed, respectively, and from where individual barges are tugboats to the berths for cargo operations. Raids are usually located above or below the berths so as not to hamper the transit passage and water areas near the berths. Significant fluctuations in the water level determine the nature of the mooring facilities in the river port and determine the use of landing stages and, in some cases, the so-called. spring moorings.
Off-condition ports on free rivers and ports on navigable canals are located in natural bays, on canal widenings or in an artificial bucket, in the latter case the port is called a bucket. Out-of-condition ports are usually also used for the winter stay of ships, and therefore they include ship repair yards. Often in large ports there are also sections located in the riverbed and bucket sections. In this case, the port is categorized as a mixed port.
Basic elements, hydraulic structures and specifications river ports are the same as sea ports. According to the navigational cargo turnover, river ports are divided into 5 classes.
According to the annual duration of operation ports on internal waterways divided into permanent and temporary. Permanent ports are operated during the entire navigation. Temporary seasonal ports function only for part of the navigation, which is determined by hydrological conditions (the length of the high water period when ships can approach the berths) or the seasonality of cargo (for example, agricultural products). Usually, temporary ports are not large - they are rather marinas. Sometimes temporary ports are created to serve large construction projects; such ports, which have been operating for only a few years, sometimes receive millions of tons of cargo during their operation.
Relative to water level seaports are open and closed.
Closed seaports located in basins separated from the sea by locks or semi-locks. Due to this, in a closed water area, by maintaining an elevated water level, the amplitude of tidal fluctuations is reduced, which significantly reduces the cost of berthing facilities and facilitates the handling of ships.
Relative to international trade seaports are divided into world, international and domestic ports.
Ports of world importance are the centers of world trade and receive ships sailing on all seas and oceans. Ports of international importance accept ships sailing within the basin on which the port itself is located. Ports of internal importance, or coastal ports, serve domestic transportation between the ports of one country only.
HISTORY OF PORTS IN RUSSIA
Greek colonial ports
At the end of II - beginning of I millennium BC. e. The Greeks called the current Black Sea "Pontus Aksinsky" - the inhospitable sea. There were legends among the Greeks that the wild inhabitants of the Crimea - the ferocious Taurians and Scythians - kill all the newcomers, sacrifice them to their gods, and make bowls for wine from skulls. In addition, storms were quite frequent on this sea, especially in winter.
Swimming at that time was carried out only directly near and along the coast. The main ships of the Greeks at that time were unirems, that is, galleys with one row of oars, up to 15 m long.
About 750 B.C. e. the era of the Great Greek colonization began. Historians believe that the reasons for such colonization are the overpopulation of the territory of Greece itself, the lack of food received on the stony, infertile land of ancient Hellas. Over the next 200 years, the Greeks founded many colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. There were three main directions of colonization: to the west - the current Italy, Spain; South - North Africa and to the northeast - the Black Sea.
As the Greek comedian Aristophanes wrote, “the Greeks were seated around the Mediterranean like frogs around a swamp.” At the same time, the Greeks did not engage in the discovery of new lands, but followed the already beaten paths of the Phoenicians, displacing their predecessors. In addition, they did not explore new lands inland, limiting their presence to the coasts.
Colonies were created, as a rule, in the places of existence of convenient natural harbors with good conditions for the approach of ships to the shore, loading and unloading various goods.
Greek city-colonies in the Northern Black Sea region in the 6th-4th centuries BC. e.
Greek colonies in the North of the Black Sea in 450 BC. e.
On the Black Sea coast, the inhabitants of the Greek city of Miletus, located on the western coast of the Anatolian Peninsula of Asia Minor, were especially successful in settling and creating colonies. The ancient Greek Anifei (late II - early III century BC) in his essay “The Feast of the Sophists” wrote: “... The Miletians, until they indulged in luxury, defeated the Scythians and populated the glorious cities of Pontus ...” Miletians in the VI century BC. e. were founded: the city of Tira on the right bank of the Dniester estuary (now the city of Belgorod-Dniester); the city of Olvia on the right bank of the Dnieper-Bug estuary (the village of Parutino); Theodosius and Panticapaeum (Kerch) in the Crimea; Germonassa (village of Tamanskaya) on the eastern shore of the Kerch Bay, etc. After its creation in the 7th - 5th centuries BC. e. In the Black Sea region, numerous Greek city-states began intensive development by the Greeks of the Black Sea and its coasts for trading purposes. Approximately half of the grain consumed by Athens in the VI century BC. e., was brought by sea from the Northern Black Sea region, mainly from fields located near Feodosia and Panticapaeum. At this time, the Greeks began to call the Black Sea Pont Euxinus - "the hospitable sea."
The Greeks called the Kerch Strait the Cimmerian Bosporus (in contrast to the Thracian Bosporus near Constantinople), the Kuban River - Gipanis, the Don River - Tanais, the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov - Meotida.
One of the ancient authors wrote that in the IV - III centuries BC. e. “... many of the carriers of goods on cargo barges from the Meotian (Azov - K.M.) the seas on the tenth day reached the harbor on the island of Rhodes, from here ... on the fourth day they come to Alexandria, and from it, sailing up against the current (along the Nile - K.M.), in another ten days they can arrive in Ethiopia without much difficulty. Thus, from extreme cold to the highest degree of heat, no more than twenty-five days of uninterrupted travel came out ... "
In 480 BC. e. the cities of the eastern and western coasts of the Cimmerian Bosporus united, creating the Bosporus kingdom with its capital in the city of Panticapaeum (modern Kerch). This kingdom is considered to be the first state association on the territory of present-day Russia. The prosperity of the Bosporus kingdom was determined by the sale to Greece of bread grown on the fertile Taman (Kuban) lands. Blacksmithing, clothes, olive oil, wine, jewelry, household items came from Greece in exchange for bread.
fjord- a narrow, deep and far-reaching bay (bay) with high and very steep banks protruding into the mountainous land. Fjords have a trough-shaped bed and are often separated from the sea by underwater rapids.
bay, bay The part of an ocean or sea that extends into land. Bay This is a small bay. There is no strict distinction between them.
strait- a narrow body of water between two continents, islands or between continents and islands, connecting adjacent oceans, seas or parts thereof.
pass- a cramped, but accessible for through navigation, a section of water between coasts, islands and hazards.
Lip- the local name for elongated bays formed by river mouths.
Liman- a shallow, deep bay with spits and embankments, which is a valley of the mouth part of the river flooded by the sea or a flooded coastal lowland.
Lagoon- stretched along the coast, as a rule, a shallow bay (bay) with salt or brackish water, connected to the sea by a small passage or completely separated from it by a spit.
Plyos- a relatively vast and safe area for navigation, located among islands, rocks, banks and other obstacles that allow ships to maneuver.
Fairway- a safe way for ships to navigate among various kinds of obstacles (between islands, underwater hazards, in mine-hazardous areas, etc.), shown on a map and usually indicated by means of navigational equipment.
sea channel- a channel artificially dug in the seabed for the passage of ships through shallow water, indicated by means of navigational equipment.
Raid- a section of water, near the coast or islands, usually located in front of a port, harbor, coastal settlement or river mouth, used for parking, and in some cases for reloading ships. According to the degree of protection from the winds, raids are open and closed. The great advantage of the raid is the presence of well-holding soil, sufficient depths (but not more than 50 m), wide and safe entry from the sea, as well as the absence of obstacles to enter the raid at any time and in any weather.
Harbor- a part of the port water area, completely protected from waves, bordered by the port area and intended for parking and cargo operations of ships.
Outport- a raid located outside or inside the port water area (but outside of the inner harbors), protected by breakwaters, breakwaters or having natural shelters.
Pool- a part of the port water area, formed by berths, piers and piers, intended for parking and cargo operations. In ports where significant fluctuations in sea level are observed, basins are isolated from the rest of the water area by special locks. Such pools are sometimes called docks.
Port- coastal water area, naturally or artificially protected from waves, drifting and alluvial ice, and adjacent to this water area a strip of coast (port area), equipped with berthing facilities. By purpose, ports are divided into trading, fishing, ports of refuge and military bases.
A serious influence on the maneuvering of ships is exerted by various port hydraulic structures.
Dam- a structure in the form of a fortified embankment (shaft) on or near the coast, designed to protect the coast from erosion and flooding by the sea, to protect canals and raids from waves and drifts, to connect various land areas with each other.
Mol- an external protective structure connected to the shore. The end part of the structure, protruding into the sea, is called the head of the pier, adjacent to the shore - the root of the pier.
Breakwater- an external protective structure not connected with the shore.
Pier- a mooring structure in the form of a dam protruding from the coast, and serving for mooring ships from the longitudinal sides, and sometimes from the head (seaward) part.
overpass- a mooring structure built on separate supports.
Landing stage (pier)- a pontoon located near the shore and intended for the mooring of small vessels and transshipment operations.
jetty- a parking place for ships in a port, harbor, etc. Quays, piers, overpasses, piers, piers, etc. can serve as berths.
Pal- 1) a structure in the form of a pile of piles or a reinforced concrete pipe hammered into the ground, installed at the bottom, filled and rising above the water so that mooring lines can be attached to it at the very high level water; 2) a structure in the form of separate piles or piles of piles driven into the ground and serving to protect against the bulk of the vessel on the shore.
Unlike elements of seaports operating in the mode of constant interaction with wave loads, the water areas of river and reservoir ports are in more favorable conditions. Wind waves arising on the surface of rivers, as a rule, do not have a significant impact on navigation and port operation. In this regard, river and sometimes reservoir ports are characterized primarily by the absence of protective structures. In some cases, protective structures in river ports are created to protect against moving ice or the formation of separate water areas - backwaters intended for winter sludge and ship repair.
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Fig.2.1. The main elements of the water area seaport: 1-approach channel; 2-shipping environment; 3-external protective structures; 4-port area; 5-berthing front; 6-shore-strengthening; 7-port territory; 8-transshipment raid; 9 navigation raid
However, the composition of the port water area on inland waterways is, as a rule, more complicated than that of a seaport.
As part of the water approaches to the river or reservoir port, the following main elements are distinguished (in addition to those listed in 2.2) (Fig. 2.2.).
Main ship's passage- used during the entire navigation period, the transit ship passage, through which the main volume of cargo and passenger transportation is carried out mainly in large-capacity vessels and trains.
Additional ship's course- a transit passage designed to shorten the route of ships and convoys, or to protect them from wave action in difficult hydrological conditions.
Local ship's course- ship passage for communication with individual points of the river, as well as points located on its tributaries with the main ship passage.
Water access to the pier- a ship's passage connecting a passenger or cargo berth with a local or transit ship's passage.
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Fig.2.2. Schemes of ship passages and water approaches to river and reservoir ports: 1- main; 2-local; 3- water approaches to the berths
Transportation of goods on inland waterways is carried out both by self-propelled and non-self-propelled vessels. Non-self-propelled vessels (as a rule, with heterogeneous cargoes) are formed into trains and transported with the help of tugs. To accommodate arriving trains and sort ships by type of cargo in river and reservoir ports, sorting raid . In large ports, several such raids can be organized with specialization in groups of ships, as well as raids are allocated for the recruitment of non-self-propelled ships departing from the port. In this regard, the elements of a river or reservoir port may include arrival raid And departure raid .
In ports located at the junction of sections of the river or its tributaries with different passage depths, some ships are usually processed at transshipment raid with floating cranes. In some cases, the ship is not completely unloaded, but only partially (unloaded), in order to reduce draft and the possibility of further movement along shallow sections of the river, or approach to the honey water pier.
Fig.2.4. The main elements of the reservoir port: 1-water area; 2-territory;
3-berthing front; 4-raid departure; 5-fencing structures; 6- sludge raid during a storm; 7th arrival raid
It should be noted that on inland waterways the entire composition of the above elements of the port water area is used only by non-self-propelled vessels. Self-propelled cargo, passenger and cargo-passenger ships approach the berths, bypassing the marshalling and, in most cases, transshipment raids.
3.4. MAIN ELEMENTS OF THE PORT AREA
Port area- a section of the coastal zone adjacent to the berthing front on which the port coastal facilities are located: transshipment equipment, covered warehouses and open storage areas, buildings, structures, access roads, communications, etc.
There are three main parts in the port territory (Fig. 2.5): I - near-cordon (operational and production); II - rear; III - portside.
Near-cordon (operational and production) part adjoins directly to the berthing front and includes the territory from the cordon line to the rear operational depots. In the cordon part of the port there is a complex of elements necessary to ensure the technological process of the port: transshipment equipment, cordon railway tracks, roadways, cordon warehouses, lighting masts, current collectors, etc. Sea or river stations are located on passenger berths in the cordon part of the territory.
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Fig.2.5. The main parts of the territory of the channel port: I - cordon (operational and production); II - rear: 1) garage; 2) warehouses for long-term storage of goods; 3) workshops; 4) material warehouse; 5) transformer substation; III - near-port: 6) port management; 7) fire station; 8) dining room; 9) car park
Taking into account the prospects for the development of the port, the design provides for reserve territory .
rear part of the port area is intended for placement of production and service and auxiliary elements: warehouses for long-term storage of goods, warehouses for material and technical and industrial supply, workshops, garages, offices of cargo areas, transformer substations, etc.
Portside part of the territory includes the port administration building, a canteen, a fire station, parking lots, etc.
Within the three main parts of the port, there are five functional zones:
1) operating room;
2) production;
3) general port facilities;
4) pre-port;
5) Passenger operations.
The first three zones are regime - with a fence and access system. Pre-port and passenger operations area form non-regime part of the territory. In large ports, the passenger operations area is divided into two sections: long-distance and suburban traffic.
In river ports, with significant (over 6 m) seasonal level fluctuations, the territory can be located on the same horizon (single-tier port) or have two groups of berths on different horizons (double-tier port).
Part land approaches system enters the port railway tracks, roads and pipelines. The largest part of land approaches is occupied by railway facilities, which include port and regional marshalling yards and parks, loading and unloading and connecting tracks.
In addition to the main elements designed to ensure loading and unloading and passenger operations, a number of auxiliary services and facilities are located on the territory of the port: bunkering and construction bases, facilities for the comprehensive maintenance of transport ships, ship repair enterprises.
3.5. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR PORT ELEMENTS
Regardless of the location, purpose, size of cargo turnover and ship turnover, the elements of ports must comply with the basic requirements that ensure accident-free, continuous and efficient operation of the port. In general, these requirements are divided into shipping, operational, construction and economic.
Shipping(navigational) requirements arise from the safety conditions when ships approach (or leave) the port, as well as maneuvering in the port water area. In accordance with shipping requirements, the elements of the port water area must provide:
· safety and convenience of approach to the port in adverse hydrometeorological conditions;
· reliable protection of the port water area from waves, currents, sediments and ice;
· Sufficient sizes of the water area for the complete damping of the inertia of the vessel, its maneuvering by its own means and approach to the berths;
· Sufficient passage depths in the approach channel, entrance roadstead and operational area.
Operational Requirements must ensure the efficient transport and production activities of the port and include:
unflooded territory;
· compliance of the main dimensions of the elements of the port with the calculated and prospective cargo and ship turnover;
· optimal protection of operational basins of the port from waves;
· Ensuring the production of loading and unloading operations and passenger operations under adverse hydrometeorological conditions;
· rational placement of the port in relation to water and land routes and its linkage with the city;
· rational zoning and zoning of the port area, taking into account environmental requirements and sanitary standards;
· ensuring the shortest way of movement of cargo through the port;
Ensuring fire safety, labor protection conditions and cargo safety;
· performance of complex fleet maintenance operations;
· favorable working conditions for port workers and ship crews;
· Possibility of effective use of the freezing port in the inter-navigation period.
Economic requirements provide for ensuring high efficiency of construction and operation of the port and provide for:
application of the most economical designs and construction methods;
maximum use of local building materials;
· organizing the work of freezing ports during the inter-navigation period (for example, shipment and accumulation of bulk cargo after the closure of navigation, rental of covered warehouses, etc.);
· application of progressive technological schemes and efficient reloading equipment.
Building Requirements provide:
selection of rational and economical types of structures;
Ensuring the necessary stability and reliability;
· provision of highly efficient organization and technology of construction works;
· Possibility of further development and reconstruction of the port.
Security questions on the topic
Main elements of the port water area
The port water area, or water surface area, consists of the following main parts: external and internal roadsteads, pools or operational water area at the berths.
Raids are the largest part of the water area. An external raid, outside the main protective structures, can usually be used for:
Laying of ships, for reloading operations afloat;
Bunkering ships, supplying fresh water, food, etc.
The inner road includes a water area that provides convenient entry and exit of ships, as well as their turn and maneuvering. The inner road adjoins directly to the berths, which can be located frontally or on the piers.
The dimensions of the basins and the width of the operational water area at the berths should ensure the convenience of loading and unloading operations.
It should be borne in mind that the indicated division of the water area into separate parts is, to a certain extent, conditional. In some ports there is no division into external and internal raids. Sometimes reloading afloat and other similar operations are carried out both on the outer roadstead and on the inner one.
The following basic requirements are imposed on the water area: protection from waves and drifts, sufficient depth and appropriate planned dimensions.
The maximum allowable wave height in the water areas of seaports depends on the type of operations that must be carried out in a given section of the water area, the direction of the waves in relation to the axis of the vessel and the size of the vessels. Parking of ships with a displacement of more than 10 thousand tons at stationary berths is allowed at heights not exceeding 1 m. When the direction of the waves coincides with the longitudinal axis of the vessel, the permissible height can be slightly increased to 1.5 m. For ships with a displacement of more than 50 thousand tons. t waves 1.5 and 2 m high are allowed. Parking in the road at floating berths can be allowed at waves 30 - 50% more than the above. It should be taken into account that berths with waves of greater height, with their frequent repetition, cannot be used efficiently enough. This leads to significant losses due to demurrage of ships in stormy weather.
Depths in the port area
The initial value for determining the depth of the water area is the draft of the calculated vessel in full load on an even keel. Depth is relative to the reference level for that port. Depending on the intensity of the traffic of deep-draft vessels, the reference levels are assigned on the basis of a graph of the long-term duration of the standing of the actual levels for the navigation period with a probability of 98 - 90%. Provision is the time in percent when the water level is higher or coincides with the calculated one.
With a small turnover in the tidal seas, a calculated level with a lower security is allowed. However, taking into account that the cost of idle time of a modern large-tonnage vessel is very high, at present, it is usually sought to ensure its passage to the port with minimal interruptions, i.e., with the greatest economically justified security. Even a significant increase in dredging works quite well in eliminating long periods of vessel downtime.
There are a number of factors to consider when determining depth. First of all, it is necessary to ensure the free maneuvering of the ship, the efficient operation of the propellers and the safety of the ship's hull. This depth reserve is usually called navigational, the size of the navigational reserve is made dependent on the type of vessel and its length.
A significant influence on the margin under the keel is exerted by the excitement, which causes the ship to oscillate in the vertical direction, as well as roll and pitch. The vertical oscillations of the ship under the influence of waves in shallow water are usually not very significant. Of great importance are roll and trim, the influence of which is mutually superimposed. The phenomena that occur in this case are very complex and require special study. Stock for excitement ( Z2) can be calculated using the formula:
Z 2 \u003d 0.3 h - Z 1 (8)
h- estimated wave height in the water area;
Z1- navigation stock.
If the value Z2 is negative, it is taken equal to zero.
When determining the depths in the basins at the approaches to the berths, where the vessel can move at a significant speed, it is necessary to take into account an additional increase in draft, which depends on a number of factors: vessel speed, depth, margin under the keel, evenness of the draft of the vessel at rest, basic dimensions and ship hull shape. There are various ways to determine the increase in draft on the ship's course. The increase in the ship's draft during its movement:
Z 3 \u003d K sk V (9)
K sk= 0.033 for vessels over 165 m in length;
K sk= 027 - for ships with a length of 165 -125 m;
K sk= 0.022 - for ships with a length of 125 - 85 m and K sk= 0.017 - for ships with a length less than 85 m;
V- the speed of the vessel.
This formula requires clarification, especially if the ship is moving through a channel of limited size.
When determining the depth of the water area, it is also necessary to take into account the margin for drift ( Z4), which is determined by the expected intensity of sedimentation for the period between repair scoops. The margin must be at least the thickness of the soil layer, at which successful operation of dredging projectiles is possible.
Location of protective structures
From the point of view of the location of protective structures, ports can be classified into the following types:
Ports without protective structures with natural protection, located in bays or estuaries, in closed or open basins
(Fig. 8 a, b, c)
Ports located in bays with additional protection by single breakwaters or breakwaters, as well as combinations of both (Fig. 8 g-g);
Ports on open coasts protected by a system of breakwaters and breakwaters (Fig. 8h-l).
The choice of the outline of protective structures is a very difficult problem, since it is necessary to ensure the simultaneous solution of a number of tasks that sometimes require a directly opposite approach.
The main tasks are to ensure the protection of the water area and such an arrangement of berthing facilities that allows a convenient approach of ships to the berths and the entrance of rolling stock to the cordon territory. Structures should have a minimum length, be located at shallow depths and at the same time allow, if possible,
unhindered further development port. Each of the above recommendations cannot be understood unconditionally either. Thus, by reducing the length of protective structures, it is necessary to provide a sufficient area of protected water area.
To eliminate crowding at the berths, protective structures should be located at a distance of at least four design wave lengths from them. In addition, when choosing the construction route, it is necessary to take into account the soil conditions in the construction area. It may turn out that a structure of great length, but erected on better soils, will have a lower cost than a short structure on weak soils.
Transferring the structure to areas with shallow depths, where, it would seem, it is possible to reduce the amount of work on the construction of the structure, it must be remembered that when the depth decreases below a certain limit, the waves turn into surf and broken waves, which have a greater force effect, which requires strengthening the profile of the structure and hence increasing its value. When choosing the planned location of the protective structure, which is also used for protection against drifting, it is necessary to take into account the change in the configuration of the coastline under the influence of the newly built structure. When choosing the outline of protective structures, it is necessary, if possible, to take into account the presence of natural obstacles protecting the water area of the port, islands, shoals, bends of the coast, capes, etc.
Great difficulties arise in the construction of ports on open coasts, where protection from waves and drifts has to be provided mainly by artificial protective structures. Sometimes the water area of such ports is formed by basins open in the bedrock or located between artificially formed piers and a section of the water area fenced off by breakwaters and breakwaters. Protective structures in this case can be:
Breakwaters parallel to the coast, with spurs directed perpendicular or at an angle to the coast;
Parallel jetties located perpendicular or almost perpendicular to the shore;
Converging piers directed at an angle to the coastline;
Combinations of breakwaters directed at an angle to the shore with breakwaters.
Breakwaters parallel to the coast, with spurs, are usually built with relatively steep bottom slopes. The advantage of this arrangement of protective structures is the possibility of developing the port by increasing the length of the breakwater in the right direction (Marseille, Genoa). The entry of ships into such ports causes some difficulties. Due to the high costs of building a pier at great depths, the water area of these ports usually turns out to be cramped. The port entrance axis has to be positioned at a slight angle to the shore, which is undesirable from a navigational point of view, since there is a danger of the vessel being thrown ashore during waves. To eliminate this danger, one of the spurs has to be lengthened, turning it into a pier. Such ports are usually built in the absence of a significant sediment flow along the coast. The complex of breakwater, spur and pier significantly disrupts the natural regime of the coast. In this case, sedimentation is possible at the entrance to the port, as well as their penetration into its water area.
Ports with protective structures in the form of paired parallel piers directed perpendicularly or at an acute angle to the coast are usually located at the entrance to a narrow bay or at the mouth of a small river in areas with a significant alongshore sediment flow. At the same time, the port's berths are located in basins dug out on the river bank. In the presence of significant tidal fluctuations, currents arise that wash the approach channel located between the piers, thus contributing to maintaining the required depths.
The length of paired breakwaters, their direction and the distance between them depend on the depths near the coast, the nature and intensity of sediment movement in the coastal zone, the direction and intensity of winds and currents. It is usually advisable to lengthen one of the breakwaters that is most exposed to drift, waves and currents. It is recommended to make the inner slopes of the breakwaters more gentle and rough. Thus, it is possible to avoid the reflection of waves and the formation of crowds in the channel.
To eliminate the penetration of waves directed along the axis of the canal, an outport is sometimes arranged directly at the entrance to the port in the form of a pool with gentle slopes of the bottom, which ensure the damping of waves entering the outport.
Protective structures in the form of paired converging breakwaters limit good wave damping, since the gradual expansion of the water area from the entrance to the coast contributes to the gradual attenuation of the waves (Fig. 8j). Converging breakwaters can be arranged symmetrically or asymmetrically. The asymmetric location of the breakwaters is often combined with the lengthening of one of them, which makes it possible to cover the entrance to the port from waves in a dangerous direction, as well as to ensure the flow of sediments around the port in order to prevent their penetration into the water area, and deposits at the entrance to the port and on the approach channel. The fencing of the port water area with converging breakwaters has a drawback - if necessary, to have a sufficient length of the port territory along the coastline, the breakwaters should be of a broken or curvilinear outline, which can lead to crowding in the port water area. In such cases, in ports of significant size, it is necessary to use a system of protective structures, consisting of several breakwaters and breakwaters. The choice of the outline of protective structures should be combined with other measures that provide wave damping and elimination of crowds. These measures include the preservation of natural beaches, the construction of artificial sloping structures, especially near the entrance to the port and in other places where it is possible for high will to penetrate and form crowds. When constructing berthing structures, preference should be given to structures with a berthing slope.
In some ports (Sochi, Tuapse, Batumi, Algiers, Cape Town) there is a very unfavorable phenomenon for the operation of ships "dragging". The cause of the traction is long-period waves caused by local change atmospheric pressure and other reasons. The draft causes oscillations of vessels with small vertical and very significant horizontal amplitudes. The period of a ship's oscillations with thrust is usually many times greater than the period with ordinary sea waves. In case of danger of long-period waves, it is recommended to study the influence of intermediate separating structures, which can simultaneously serve as berths.
By dividing large basins into parts, it is sometimes possible to eliminate dangerous resonant vibrations in the port water area. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that structures from the sketch may be permeable to long-period waves.
Location and dimensions of the entrance to the port
The entrance to the port must first of all meet the requirements for the convenience and safety of the passage of ships. Waves that are dangerous from the point of view of the normal operation of vessels in the water area and at the berths of the port should not penetrate through the entrance.
If waves and wind in the area of the proposed port can significantly change direction, while remaining dangerous in magnitude, it may be appropriate to arrange two or more entrances to the port.
The presence of a second entrance facilitates the maneuvering of ships, improves the fire safety conditions in the port, and is also expedient in terms of special requirements.
Sometimes the entrances to the same port have different sizes and are intended for ships of different tonnage. The number of entrances to the port is sometimes made dependent on the traffic of the port. Approximately, it is considered that it takes 2 hours to enter and exit under average conditions. Accordingly, the throughput of the entrance is about 400 transport vessels per month. This value requires clarification in the conditions of each specific port. It can be significantly increased if the port is well equipped with tugs and their efficient operation.
In the presence of intense sediment flows, the requirements for protection against drifting of approach channels should be taken into account. The entrance to the port is usually located in the deepest part of the water area and at the greatest distance from the coast. In order to eliminate the danger of a ship piling on the heads of protective structures, a ship should move as straight as possible when entering the port and only after entering the protected water area can it make a curved turn. For navigational reasons, the entrance axis should be directed at the smallest possible angle to the direction of the prevailing wind and waves. Thus, the risk of demolition of the vessel on the protective structures is reduced. However, this direction of entry into the port is the most dangerous in terms of wave penetration into the water area. In this regard, the angle between the entry axis and the direction of the wave beam a must be within 45 - 70 ° (Fig. 9).
In order to eliminate the danger of the ship being stranded, a second restriction is sometimes placed on the direction of entry. The angle between the axis of the port entrance and the direction of the coastline b must be greater than 30°. This requirement is often difficult to satisfy while meeting the first requirement regarding the angle ά , and therefore the requirement for the angle b in many existing ports is not observed. If, due to local conditions, it is impossible to fully simultaneously satisfy the requirements of security and navigation, it is necessary to develop measures for additional protection of the water area by installing wave protection spurs or other similar measures.
Compliance with the requirement that the axis of the port entrance is not close to the direction of the coastline can be somewhat relaxed if there is a significant distance from the port entrance to the line of design depths near the coast. In this case, the risk of the vessel being thrown ashore is reduced. To be able to maneuver the ship at the entrance, its distance from the design depths must be at least two to three ship lengths. A similar condition is met, for example, in the port of Novorossiysk.
Determination of the main dimensions of the port water area
The dimensions of the water area are made up of parts necessary for maneuvering ships, parts of the water area adjacent to the berths, and parts of the water area used for loading and unloading operations afloat, as well as for laying ships in the inner roads.
When determining the size of the part of the water area intended for maneuvering ships, it is necessary to take into account the values of the permissible speed at the entrance to the port, as well as the speed of maneuvering the vessel in the port water area. Permissible speed of ships at the entrance to the port can vary within 2-4 knots. This usually corresponds to a small forward stroke, in some cases to a medium one.
The circulation diameter for oil tankers is about three ship lengths, for dry cargo ships - about five.
The ship enters in a straight line into the protected water area and reduces speed while turning in the right direction. The length of the initial straight section of the trajectory is equal to 3-5L (L- ship length). The minimum radius of curvature of the transition curved section of the ship's trajectory is usually taken within 3-5L. The minimum turning circle radius is assumed to be 2L, when moving with tugs - L.
If the maneuvering of ships largest sizes visiting this port, however, turns out to be impossible, then you have to move on to maneuvering with tugs. With the wake of the ship, bow and stern tugs, the total length of the caravan is:
L= L+2L to +2L bt (10)
L- the length of the vessel;
L in- length of the tug;
L bt- the length of the towing rope.
If we take into account the size ΔL is the margin for vessel vibrations during maneuvering, then with sufficient accuracy the diameter of the pool for maneuvering with tugs can be taken equal to 2-3L instead of 4-5L when manoeuvring.
Clearance must be left between the trajectory of the moving vessel and the berthing facilities V"m allowing the mooring of a vessel with a floating bunker and barges, as well as a passage for an oncoming vessel with tugs. Value V"m can be determined according to the scheme (Fig. 12).
V "m \u003d 2.55 Vs + V p, + 2V l + ZV b + ΔV + ΔV1 (11)
In with- width of the sea vessel;
In p- floating loader width
V l- width of the barge-lighter;
C b- the width of the tug.
Sometimes in long basins or at the heads of piers, water areas are provided for a turning circle with a diameter 2L. The area of the basins is
S b \u003d B b L b (12)
here the basin length is determined from the condition
L b \u003d nL c + (n + 1) ΔL(13)
n- number of ships
Lc- length of the design vessel;
ΔL- the average gap between the vessels, as well as between the ends of the pier and the basin and the bow (stern) of the nearest vessel.
The above calculations in some cases require clarification in accordance with the technological schemes of transshipment operations and ship servicing methods used at the berths in question. In particular, only floating bunkers are usually installed to passenger and oil tankers from the side of the free side.
The schemes indicated above refer to cases of ships mooring side by side. Meanwhile, at some specialized berths, ships are installed perpendicular to the cordon line. This is usually how ships of the technical fleet, ferries and some other types of ships, such as trailers loaded from the bow or stern, are installed. In this case, a water area should be provided at the berth, providing a convenient approach for ships.
Location of the mooring front
Berths in ports are divided into coastal and offshore. The mooring line, along which the shore berths are located, may have a different shape, the outline of which is selected depending on: local conditions, including topographic factors (the outline of the coastline, the shape of the coast and bottom topography), hydrological factors (waves, currents, ice regime) , geological factors (type and form of soil occurrence in the territory and water area of the port); accepted technology of processing and storage of goods; availability and possibility of creating water and land approaches to the berth.
Domestic and foreign port construction experience shows that the following arrangement of berthing lines is currently used:
Frontal (Fig. 13 a-c), in which berths are placed along straight or broken lines, following one after another along the coastline, in basins and at structures that limit the port water area (pier);
Pier (Fig. 13 d, e), when the berths are located along the perimeter of ledges protruding into the water area - piers having the shape of a rectangle, parallelogram, trapezoid, etc.;
Stepped (Fig. 13 f), in which the berths are located on a broken line in the form of steps.
The listed forms of the mooring line have their own advantages and disadvantages, which should be taken into account when designing.
The frontal location of the berths has the following advantages:
A water area that is simpler in shape, not constrained by protruding parts of the berthing front, which simplifies vessel maneuvering and reduces the possibility of ice accumulation in the water area;
Easier to create wide port area, which is especially important in the construction of berths for reloading containers and some other types of specialized berths that require large storage areas;
Soils along the length of the berths usually turn out to be more uniform, which favorably affects the structural forms of the berths;
The construction of berthing structures, the laying of communications, the placement of rear warehouses and their connection with the berthing front are being simplified.
The disadvantages of the frontal location of the berths include:
A less compact, stretched layout of the port, sometimes associated with insufficiently efficient use of the coastline, with the lengthening of land and water approaches, as well as communications:
In the presence of artificial protective structures, difficulties arise for the development and reconstruction of the port;
The outline of land access roads is becoming more complicated; necessary. an independent branch of the railway tracks for every 5 - b berths;
Difficulties arise in the zoning and specialization of the port berths, associated with the creation of gaps between groups of berths, since the territory and coastline in the area of these discontinuities may be unused.
The frontal location of the berthing front is usually used in elongated water areas that go deep into the territory (mouth sections of rivers, estuaries, fiords), in artificially formed open and closed basins, less often on open coasts and in bays fenced with breakwaters and breakwaters.
The compact pier system for marking the berthing front is used more often than the frontal one. It also has its drawbacks:
Some underutilization of the territory in the locations of railway and road exits to the piers;
Difficulty in using the ends of the piers as moorings;
Difficulty in creating significant areas of territory directly at the berthing front on the piers and the distance from the cordon line of rear warehouses located on the main territory;
Complicated design and construction of piers compared to coastal berths due to changes in natural depths and soils along the length of the pier.
The listed disadvantages of the pier system are less significant than their advantages. In this regard, the frontal system is of limited use.
Depending on the purpose, the piers are divided into wide and narrow. Wide piers (240-300 m and more) are usually used for general cargo, transshipped by cranes and requiring the placement of railway tracks on the piers and, if possible, at least transit warehouses.
On narrow piers used as specialized berths, railroad tracks are usually not laid. They serve to accommodate specialized reloading devices or hose lifters for oil berths. Narrow piers can have a different shape. The pier itself has a relatively short length, providing a fairly reliable contact between ships and structures. In addition, the berth includes a flyover connecting the narrow pier with the shore, and separate supports - palis.
In some cases, the main mooring part of the facility turns parallel to the shore and the narrow pier turns into T- or G-shaped berth (Fig. 14). Conveyor lines or pipelines are laid along the connecting overpass, depending on the purpose of the berth. If the berth is located at a considerable distance from the shore, it is possible to use the island structure of the berth without a connecting overpass. In this case, the cargo will be supplied by underwater pipelines or by means of an overhead cable car. The stepped outline of the mooring front is intermediate between the frontal and pier, it has some advantages and disadvantages of these two systems. In certain local conditions, it can find and finds successful application.
When determining the line of the berthing front, technology and planning should be taken into account, however, considerations of economy and reliability of the decision taken are of significant importance. The foundation of the structure, if possible, should be dense soils. It is necessary to strive to reduce the volume of excavation of rocky soil. For non-rocky soils, excavation volumes should be approximately equal to the volume of embankment, especially if it is possible to use soils taken from the excavation to form territories.
In addition to coastal berths, the port also has offshore berths, which can be stationary in the form of bollards, island berths or rotating towers, moored behind several berthing buoys, using single buoys of a special design.
port area
The port area consists of the following main parts:
Near-cordon areas, including the operational strip located at the berth;
Areas occupied by warehouses located on the first and second lines;
Areas where all types of access roads are located at berths and warehouses, as well as gaps between them;
Rear areas for covered and open warehouses;
Areas occupied by all types of access roads, as well as marshalling yards and parking lots in the rear area of the port;
Areas for office, administrative, domestic and auxiliary buildings;
Areas for ship repair enterprises;
Areas occupied by industrial enterprises, if they have specialized berths in the port area and are located in close proximity to the coastline.
Most importance from the point of view of the direct performance of reloading operations, they have cordon areas. However, the normal operation of the entire port as a whole is possible only with a sufficient value total area and successful placement of all parts of the port area. The cross-sectional plans of the bulk cargo berth have changed significantly since the beginning of this century. Due to the change in the methods of transshipment of goods and their movement within and outside the port, the width of the territory at the berth has gradually increased from 40 to 150-300 m when transshipping ordinary piece cargo in packages and on pallets, and up to 250-600 m for container berths. The territory at the pier consists of several zones. For berths where piece cargoes of the Soyuzmorniya project are reloaded, the following division of the cordon strip into zones is proposed (Fig. 15): A- zone from the cordon to the crane runway; 
B- zone of near-cordon, crane and railway tracks; IN- zone from crane and railway tracks to the covered warehouse; G- area of covered warehouses; D- zone of rear railway tracks; E- zone of rear open warehouses; AND- rear area highway.
Zone dimensions A are determined on the basis of the conditions for ensuring the safe operation of portal cranes and eliminating the possibility of damage to them by vessels approaching at an angle or with a list, as well as during loading and unloading operations or when the vessel is moored at the berth during waves. This area is also used for the installation of mooring bollards, columns for power supply and other equipment. In this regard, in recent years there has been a tendency to increase the width of the zone A up to 3 m. Zone width A= 2.25 m is allowed only for berths adjacent to the existing ones, for which it is equal to this value.
In the zone B tracks for gantry cranes are being laid, as well as railway loading and unloading and running tracks. The width of this zone consists of the gauge of the crane track and the width of the strip occupied by the railway tracks located behind the crane portal towards the coast.
Depending on the number of tracks laid under the portal, the gauge will be equal to 6 m for a single-track portal, 10.5 m for a double-track portal and 15.3 m for a three-track portal. located outside the portal 4.5 - 5.3 m. The number of railway tracks laid outside the portal is determined by the intensity and technology of cargo operations. The number of railway tracks on the berths equipped with specialized transshipment complexes is specified by special calculations. This clarification is also required in case of a significant removal of marshalling yards and in other similar cases.
Zone IN, sometimes called an operational platform, is divided into several separate lanes, the dimensions of which and the purpose are different for warehouses with a ramp and without a ramp.
Zones G And E- these are areas of covered and open warehouses. Zone D used to accommodate rear railroad tracks. In the rear zone, as a rule, there are two tracks, and with the location of warehouses in two lines - three.
Width of the back road zone AND consists of a 7 - 10 m wide carriageway, a 1.5 m wide pedestrian sidewalk and a 4 - 5 m wide strip of green spaces. The total width of the zone AND- 10 -17 m. The width of the entire strip of the cordon area at the berth is obtained by summing the zones A - F.
These dimensions in some cases require serious adjustment depending on local conditions and the applied handling devices. There is a tendency to increase the width of the territory, which improves the operating conditions of handling equipment and storage areas.
