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1. General characteristics of industrialized countries………………...
2. Main features of industrialized countries……………………..
3. Industrialized countries in the world economy and world production…………………………………………………………………..
4. Industrialized countries in international economic relations…………………………………………........................... ...............
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………
Bibliography…………………………………………………………...
Introduction
The modern world economy was formed in connection with the transition of capitalism to the monopoly stage of development. It was then that the world capitalist market, which was formed at the stage of pre-monopoly capitalism, developed into a system of international production relations. The decisive role in this process was played by the export of capital, which internationalized the market and production relations of national capitals.
The essence of the capitalist system of the world economy is expressed in a complex combination of struggle and cooperation in the economic and political spheres, when relations of cooperation or contradictions prevail at different stages, reaching crisis situations of capitalist countries and their groups.
This paper is a general tour of the industrialized countries and consists of the following sections:
The main features of industrialized countries, revealing the essence of industrialized countries, the pattern of their historical and social development.
Industrialized countries in the world economy and world production. This section highlights the role of industrialized countries in the world community, the state of the economy and production.
Industrialized countries in international economic relations, describes the relationship of industrialized countries with each other and developing countries.
The relevance of this topic lies in the analysis of the processes of development and formation of industrialized countries, their role in the world economy and the problems and aspects of interaction with developing countries.
1. General characteristics of industrialized countries
The industrially developed capitalist countries occupy a dominant position in the world economy. These include 24 states that are members of the OECD. All of them, with the exception of Japan, are European or derived from Western Europe. They are distinguished by a single reproduction process within the framework of national economies, an intensive type of economic development, and a high level of development of productive forces. 15.6% of the world's population lives in the countries of this subsystem, but it concentrates the vast majority of the world's economic, scientific and technical potential. The economic development of Western countries, their domestic and foreign economic policies predetermine the main directions of scientific and technological shifts and restructuring in the world economy, the state of the world market.
2. Main features of industrialized countries
The industrialized countries of the West have much in common in their historical development.
1. In socio-economic terms, the development of their economy is based on the capitalist mode of production, i.e. on a certain unity and interactions of productive forces and production relations determined by ownership of the means of production. In this case, the allocation of a subsystem is based on the concept of a social order, which, ultimately, is determined by property relations and related forms of distribution of the produced product, its exchange and consumption.
The development of capitalist relations is conditioned by the rapid spread of commodity production, when goods and services are produced for exchange. Commodity relations also extend to labor power. The relations between the labor force and the capitalists act as relations between equal commodity owners - buyers and sellers.
Along with the formational approach, there is the concept of W. Rostow, which considers the development of industrialized countries by stages of growth. In this case, the industrialized capitalist countries are going through a stage of growth, a mature or industrial society, a stage of mass consumption.
The recovery stage is characterized by the final overcoming of the old traditional foundations that impede sustainable growth. The period of rise in the leading industrial countries lasts from the beginning of the industrial revolution in Britain until the 20s of the current century.
After the rise, there is a long period of steady growth and cyclical progress - the transition to maturity. It is approximately 40 years old. The stage of maturity came in Britain in the middle of the 19th century, in France, the USA, Germany - at the beginning of the 20th century, Sweden - in the 30s, in Japan - in the 30s-40s, in the USSR - in the 40s-50s years. The transition to the production of mass-produced products occurred earlier than others in the USA, Canada, Britain, Australia - in the 20-30s.
2. The industrialized countries of the West stand out among all the subsystems of the world economy for a very high level their economic development. In terms of GDP per capita, they are almost five times higher than the world average. Over the past decades, the gap in these indicators has increased (1962 - 3.6 times). These differences in levels of economic development are not only an expression of special conditions second half of the 20th century This is the result of a long socio-economic and historical development.
In addition to socio-economic advantages, Western countries, as noted, strengthened their economic position in the world through wars, colonial conquests, widespread use of the slave trade, and piracy.
3. Bourgeois revolutions have transformed all spheres of life in Western countries. Unprecedented changes have taken place in the social structure of society. Class relations began to profile the structure of society, although the constantly changing economic and social situation of many groups and strata of the population blurs a clear picture of class division.
The working class, the bourgeoisie, the petty bourgeoisie, and the intermediate layers located between them - these are the main elements of the class structure of the Western countries. When determining the class affiliation of certain groups of the population, numerous deviations are usually noted. There is a middle class, which includes mainly professional and technical specialists.
4. In the course of socio-historical development in the XVI-XVIII centuries. in Western countries, a civil society has developed as a set of forms of social organization that extends to the whole society and its large constituent parts. It is a collection of amateur organizations linking the entire society horizontally. These organizations are not limited to the state, and often oppose it.
At the level of the individual, there was an easing of the conditions for social advancement, an expansion of social mobility. In the political field, organizations were formed that were built on a democratic basis and fought on the basis of conscious class, professional and other interests.
The developed capitalist countries, as a subsystem of the world economy, are self-organizing, open formations that are in a state of development and interaction with the external environment.
3. Industrialized countries in the world economy and world production
Consider the question of this section on the example of specific countries, based on the impact of internal factors and economic processes.
The United States is the leader of the world economy, one of the largest countries in the world in terms of territory and population. In the country, on an area of about 9.3 million square meters. km is home to more than 255 million people. In terms of the level of development of productive forces and the scale of their economy, they are far ahead of any of the other developed countries. The course of development of economic processes in the United States itself is one of the main generators of shifts in the economy of the whole world. Business activity in the United States serves as a "barometer" for the world economy, directly affects the movement of the cycle and changes in the economic situation in other countries, affects the structure of international economic exchange.
The US produces the most goods and services in the world. The closest partners are significantly inferior to the United States in this respect.
The United States ranks first in the world in terms of industrial production, has the world's largest highly efficient agriculture. The collection of all types of grain crops in recent years has been about 400 million tons per year, while about 50% of wheat and 60% of corn are exported. The service sector is developing dynamically and is taking an increasingly important place in the country's export activity.
At the same time, the development of reproductive processes in the United States is increasingly determined by the growing relationship between the United States and other centers of the world economy. The internationalization of US economic life is now taking place not only as a result of the export of goods, services and capital from the USA, but also as a result of an unprecedented influx of goods, services and capital from abroad into the USA.
The extremely high capacity of the US domestic market provides a unique place in the global economy. The highest GNP in the world means that the US spends more than any other country on current consumption and investment. An important factor that characterizes consumer demand in the US is the overall high level of income relative to other countries and a large segment of the middle class, focused on high standards of consumption. In the US, an average of 1.5 million new homes are started each year, more than 10 million new cars are sold, and a host of other durable goods are sold.
The US industry consumes about 1/3 of all raw materials mined in the world. The country has the world's largest market for machinery and equipment. It accounts for over 40% of machine-building products sold in developed countries. Having the most developed mechanical engineering, the USA at the same time became the largest importer of mechanical engineering products. The United States receives more than 1/4 of the world's exports of machinery and equipment, purchasing almost all types of equipment.
In the United States, by the early 1990s, a stable progressive economic structure had developed, in which the predominant share belongs to the production of services. Their share in the gross domestic product (GDP) is more than 60%, the share of material production - 37% and about 2.5% - agricultural products. The role of the service sector in employment is even more significant: here, in the early 1990s, it accounted for more than 73% of the economically active population.
The United States has the largest scientific and technical potential in the world, which in modern conditions is a decisive factor in the dynamic development of the economy and competitiveness in the world economy. The annual allocation for research and development (R&D) in the United States exceeds that of the UK, Germany, France and Japan combined.
A huge role in ensuring the high performance of R&D in the United States is also played by such an incalculable factor as the accumulated experience in organizing and managing R&D, the close interaction of this area with all other areas of economic life, the positive attitude of entrepreneurs to the active use of advanced achievements of science and technology as major competitive advantage at home and abroad.
American corporations firmly hold the lead in the world in such areas of scientific and technological progress as the production of aircraft and spacecraft, heavy-duty computers and their software, the production of semiconductors and the latest powerful integrated circuits, the production of laser technology, communications, and biotechnology. The US accounts for more than 50% of major innovations generated in developed countries. In a sense, the United States is the main "incubator" of technical innovation for the whole world.
The United States continues to be the largest producer of high-tech products, or, as it is commonly called, science-intensive products: their share in the world production of these products was in the early 90s. 36%, Japan - 29%, Germany - 9.4%, EEC - 29%.
Another area where Americans hold a very strong position is the processing of accumulated knowledge and the provision of information services. This factor plays a very significant role, since fast and high-quality information support has increasingly determined the efficiency of the entire production apparatus. Currently, 75% of the data banks available in developed countries are concentrated in the United States.
The entire working contingent in the United States is characterized by a high educational level. In the early 1990s, 38.7% of Americans aged 25 and over had completed secondary education, 21.1% had completed higher education, and 17.3% had incomplete higher education. Only 11.6% of American adults have less than a secondary education, which is 8 or less years of schooling. The powerful scientific and technological potential of the country and the general high level of education and professional training of Americans serve as a strength factor for American corporations in their competitive struggle with rivals in the domestic and world markets.
The United States has consistently dominated world trade, the export of loan capital, direct and portfolio foreign investment. Today, this predominance is realized mainly in the scale of the economic potential and the dynamism of its development, scientific and technological progress, foreign investment and influence on the global financial market.
Today, one of the most scarce resources in the world is advanced technology, while there is practically no shortage of raw materials. Now raw material suppliers compete for access to the markets of developed countries, which absorb more than 70% of the exports of the developing world. In this situation, changes in the situation in the US economy and conditions for access to the US market have a significant impact on the position of exporters of raw materials.
occupies a special place in the world economy Western Europe. It accounts for 28% of total GDP and 7% of the world's population. It does not represent a "superpower" in economic and political terms. Western Europe includes 25 countries that differ from each other in size of territory, population, natural resources, economic and scientific and technical potential.
The countries of Western Europe belong to the group of economically developed countries with the same type of economy. They are characterized by a fairly high level of economic development, occupying 2-44 places among the countries of the world in terms of GDP per capita. According to the level of economic development, the nature of the structure of the economy, the scale of economic activity, Western European countries are divided into several groups. The main economic power of the region falls on the four large highly industrialized countries of Germany, France, Italy and Great Britain, which concentrate 50% of the population and 70% of the gross domestic product. These powers largely determine the general trends in the economic and socio-political development of the entire region.
The rest of the countries are classified as small industrialized countries. The special place occupied by developed countries in the region and in the world is determined by the high level of specialization in the production of technically complex, high-quality products. An important role in the development of the processes of the international division of labor was played by the small scale of the domestic markets of these countries, which held back the emergence of large enterprises in all sectors of the economy due to insufficient demand.
Naturally, all this is most clearly manifested in the dynamics of GDP presented in Table 1.
GDP dynamics in Western Europe (percentage)
Table 1
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Name |
Average annual growth rates by years |
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EEC of the country as a whole |
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Great Britain |
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Federal Republic of Germany: The largest country in Western Europe is Germany. In terms of GDP, industrial production, and the level of economic development, it ranks 3rd-5th in the world. Its share in world GDP in 1989 was at the level of 1970 - 5.8%. With 80 million people. population of Germany concentrates 21% of GDP and 27% of the industrial power of the region.
The highest level of centralization has been achieved in the credit sector. Among the banks, the leading place is occupied by four - Deutsche Bank, Dresdner Bank, Westdeutsche LB, Commerce Bank, which are among the largest banks in the world.
Despite the high degree of centralization of capital and production, a significant share is occupied by small and medium-sized companies. Small companies employing up to 50 people concentrate 11% of those employed in industry. In the entire economy of the country, small and medium-sized firms create almost half of the gross product and provide two-thirds of jobs.
The interweaving of capital, personal union leads to the fact that until now a significant part of German companies continues to be under the control of individual families. The most powerful among them are the Thyssen, Bayer, Flick, Siemens, Quandt, Opel, Bosch, Gruding, Neckermann.
In recent decades, the role of the state has changed. Weakened its entrepreneurial function, direct forms of regulation. State entrepreneurship took shape under the influence of state building or the buyout of enterprises and firms that were in a difficult financial situation. The transition to a neo-conservative form of regulation was accompanied by the reduction of the public sector through the sale of shares of enterprises in the credit markets. Germany was characterized by partial privatization of state-owned enterprises, their transformation into mixed companies. The contraction of the public sector expanded the scope of private capital, market forces.
One of the leading countries of the Western powers is France, which ranks seventh among all countries in the world - 4.7% of total GDP with 1% of the population. In terms of territory (551 thousand sq. km) and population (57 million people), it is one of the largest countries in Europe. In terms of economic development, it is inferior to Germany and a number of small countries (Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Luxembourg). France accounts for 17% of industrial and 20% of agricultural production in Western Europe.
In the 80s, the economic development of France was characterized by slow growth, mass unemployment, and sharp changes in the main directions of state regulation. The structural crisis of the world economy, the transition to a new type of reproduction had a strong impact on industrial production. After the crisis of the 1980s, the French industry restored its level of production only in 1986.
Small business plays an active role in the country's economy. Small and medium-sized enterprises strengthened their positions in the period of 70-80 years. The small sector is very mobile. 30% of registered business units fail after 2 years, and one in two falls short of 5 years. The number of firms failing is high. An obstacle in the activities of new companies is the lack of accumulation of initial and working capital. The small sector is mainly focused on services and trade.
The functioning of the economic system occurs under the powerful influence of the state on the reproductive process.
Italy is one of the leading industrialized countries in Europe and the world. With a population of 57 million people. it produces 4.3% of the world's total GDP and about 18% of the EEC countries' GDP. In the past decades, it has narrowed the gap in economic development, as measured by GDP per capita, with the countries of Western Europe. In the 70-80s. The Italian economy has shown dynamism, surpassing the leading countries of Western Europe in terms of growth. In 1966, Italy, ahead of Great Britain in terms of GDP, came in fifth place among the industrialized countries. In terms of industrial production, it is ahead of France.
The most important agent of economic relations is the state, which not only mediates economic relations through finances and legislation, but acts as a major owner of the means of production. The development of the public sector has historically been conditioned by the weakness of private enterprise, which was unable to solve the complex problems of the country's economic development. Extensive state measures to rescue from bankruptcy and improve private companies and banks led to the creation and expansion of the public sector. In cases where companies, having received financial assistance from the state, were unable to repay their debts, they passed under the control of the state. As a result of "creeping" nationalization, such groups as Inocenti, SIR, Liquiquimica, Onyx and others came under state control.
The public sector expanded through new construction, both at the national and municipal levels, as well as through the nationalization, in particular, of electricity enterprises and the purchase of a controlling stake.
The neoconservative shift that began in the developed capitalist countries in the late 1970s affected Italy to a lesser extent. Unlike Great Britain, the denationalization of the economy was limited. The denationalization of industry passed through the sale of shares on the private market and thus led to a decrease in the state's share in the capital, as well as the privatization of a number of companies.
A prominent place in the socio-economic structure of the country belongs to the cooperative sector, which occupies an intermediate position between state and private entrepreneurship. His position has been strengthened. The expansion of the cooperative sector was facilitated by the transfer to its structure of part of private and state-owned companies that were on the verge of bankruptcy.
The UK ranks ninth in the world in terms of GDP and fourth in Western Europe. It accounts for 4.2% of total GDP and 1% of the world's population. In terms of economic development, it is inferior to many Western European countries, being in 12th place.
A characteristic feature of the largest British companies is the high degree of internationalization of their activities. For the top 30 firms, foreign production almost equals domestic production. TNCs are the main force of British capital.
A high level of monopolization is noted in the credit sector. Among the banks, the dominant positions are occupied by the big five: Barclays Bank, National Westminster, Aby National, HSHBK Holding and Lloyds Bank.
The role of the state in the country's reproduction process has changed. A significant part of the denationalized sector has been turned into mixed companies, where the state owns a smaller part of the capital.
The concepts of monetarism were placed at the center of economic policy, the main means of implementation of which is monetary regulation. The issues of maintaining employment were relegated to secondary positions. As part of the medium-term financial strategy, a special place was given to reducing public spending to reduce the budget deficit, including the sale of nationalized industries.
Science and technology policy is aimed at promoting structural adjustment. The share of funds allocated for indirect stimulation of innovation activities has increased. Increasing the role of indirect forms of stimulation is accompanied by a concentration of direct state appropriations to support promising areas of scientific and technological progress.
The concentration of agricultural capital and the increased penetration of industrial and banking into this industry led to the creation of an agro-industrial complex in which agriculture itself does not occupy a leading position (1/5 of production). The transition of certain industries to an industrial basis has led to the emergence of large companies that occupy a leading position in the markets of certain types of products. This situation has developed, first of all, in the poultry industry. Agricultural cooperation has a stimulating effect on the development of production.
A brief review of the state of the economy of the leading industrialized countries of the world is completed by Japan - where, after the restoration of the pre-war level in the early 50s, the pace of the economy was the highest among developed countries.
In terms of industrial production, Japan ranks second in the world.
Structurally, the Japanese economy can be characterized as diversified: about 40% are general engineering products; 15% falls on the production of high-tech electronics and electrical engineering; the same amount is produced by transport engineering, including cars and various ships.
4. Industrialized countries in international economic relations
Modern capitalist production is influenced by a number of international factors, among which the processes of internationalization of production forces play a decisive role. From such positions, the capitalist economy as a whole acts, on the one hand, as a system of relations between the capitalist countries themselves, and on the other hand, between developing countries that are in close ties with them.
The scale and richness of the American market is a powerful factor in the growth of world trade. This encourages world countries to actively fight for access to the US market and strengthening their positions in this market. One of the results of this struggle is the release of US resources for their use in more progressive directions due to the satisfaction of part of society's needs through imports. From this point of view, the indicators of US foreign trade should be evaluated.
The export of goods is, compared with other countries, a low share in the national production of the United States. The export quota fluctuates around 8-9% of GNP. Export markets provide sales for about one quarter of general engineering products, more than one fifth for engines and turbines, and more than two fifths for aircraft. The United States, with the exception of 1988-1990, ranks first in the world in terms of exports and imports.
Imports are playing an increasingly growing role in the United States not only as a source of supply for the country with goods, but also as a factor in world competition, the influence of which now covers almost the entire US economy. About 20% of the US needs for textiles, steel and a number of other types of products important for the economy are met through imports, and for some goods - to a much greater extent. For example, imports account for 30% of US annual car sales, with 19% coming from Japan, more than 4% from Western Europe, and almost 4% from South Korea. In recent years, the share of imports in sales of machine tools and equipment has increased to 50%, and in sales of consumer electronics, footwear and some other goods it has exceeded 80%.
Germany and Japan remain the largest trading partners and at the same time the main competitors of the United States in the world and domestic markets. Germany sends 8-9% to the USA, and Japan - 29-31% of its exports. A stable deficit in trade with these countries has become one of the main conditions for their economic development.
An important evidence of the leading role of the United States in the global economy is the movement of the country's technological balance of payments. It includes flows of payments and proceeds from technology transfer. This includes payments for registration of patents, acquisition of licenses, trademarks, design developments, copyrights, industrial rights and designs, know-how, payment for management services, etc.
Shifts in the economies of the Western European countries had an impact on the scale and nature of their participation in the system of the international division of labor. The process of movement in world economic relations from the export of goods to the export of capital has intensified. In the early 1980s, Western European TNCs came to the fore in terms of the scale of foreign assets, pushing American corporations into second place. But a significant part (40%) of the investments of the Western European countries is placed within the region, in other parts of the world they are inferior to the American ones.
Small countries rapidly increased their American assets, among which the leading position is occupied by Switzerland, which accounts for about 1/6 of Western European assets abroad.
Germany is the world's second largest importer (11.1%). The import quota has risen substantially for many industries. In the manufacturing industry, it increased to 22% (aerospace industry over 80%). The increase in the import quota is explained by the intensification of intra-industry specialization, resulting in an increase in intra-trade exchange among the same commodity groups.
An important place in the structure of the monopoly capital of Germany is occupied by foreign TNCs. Almost 1/3 of the 30 largest companies in Germany are controlled by foreign capital. These are Esso, Oppel, Univeler, Deutsche Shell, etc.
The leading trading partners of the country are France and Italy, Great Britain, each of them accounts for 13.9 and 9% of German exports, respectively. Active trade relations are maintained with the USA (7.3% of exports). In general, the industrial development of the country accounts for over 80% of the foreign trade turnover of Germany, including 54% to the EEC countries.
The Russian Federation occupies a certain place in the business relations of Germany. Within the framework of mutual relations, long-term cooperation is carried out in a number of traditional industries (chemistry, equipment supplies) and the import of Russian natural gas, a number of agreements on scientific and technical cooperation and industrial cooperation are in force. Economic cooperation is supported by loans from German banks. Germany has become Russia's largest creditor.
France's position in the world economy has somewhat weakened, so recently the country's share in industrial production has declined from 6.6 to 5.7% over the 80s. Reduced export opportunities. The unemployment rate has exceeded 10%. French industry is still underspecialized and has difficulty adapting to rapidly changing market demand. The relatively low efficiency of the production apparatus is associated with the historical features of the development of the economy, which in the 50-60s. mainly focused on the domestic market, and in foreign relations a large place was occupied by developing countries, mainly within the former colonial empire. An important role in this process was played by the dominance of the credit sector in the structure of the economy, which usually shows excessive caution in the implementation of long-term industrial projects.
The processes of concentration and centralization of capital and the restructuring of the French economy occur simultaneously with the process of internationalization of production and capital, which lead to the creation of huge multinational corporations. Thus, "Imetal" unites 62 companies operating in 25 countries. The automotive company Renault has almost 45% of its production capacity and 25% of its workforce in foreign enterprises, and so on.
The centralization of capital at the national and international level has led to the strengthening of a number of French companies in world production. The chemical company "Pechinet" has become the world leader in packaging products, the printing company "Ashet" has become the world's leading publisher of magazines, the company "Cable de Lyon" has become the world leader in the production of electrical cables.
Banks actively participate in the activities of industrial companies through a system of participation in equity holdings, using, among other things, holding companies, investment funds, personal unions.
The process of interweaving of capital has led to the fact that the entire economy is covered by several financial groups with extensive international ties.
The trade and balance of payments of France is traditionally reduced to a negative balance. The deficit is formed mainly due to minerals, some chemical and consumer goods, including consumer electronics. In the last decade, the balance of trade in manufactured goods has worsened. Large gaps are being formed in trade with the FRG and Japan.
France maintains fairly stable economic relations with the Russian Federation. In exports, the main place is occupied by machinery and equipment, chemical and agricultural products. France imports fuel and raw materials from the Russian Federation.
The deepening of the international division of labor, the country's dependence on external supplies of raw materials determines the large scale of imports. Italy is largely dependent on the import of minerals. Through imports, it covers 80% of its energy needs - twice as much as the average for Western Europe. Large positions in the structure of imports are occupied by agricultural and chemical goods, foodstuffs.
Geographically, Italy's foreign trade relations are concentrated in the EEC countries, to which about 60% of Italian exports are sent. The main trading partners are Germany, which accounts for 17%, and France - 16% of exports. The United States occupies a large share in the trade turnover - 8.6% of exports, and their share is rapidly increasing.
The country's foreign economic settlements are chronically reduced to a negative balance. It is based on the deficit of the foreign trade balance. It comes from commodities such as fuels and chemicals, vehicles and food. The imbalance in trade is half due to the excess of imports from Germany. Large funds are transferred out of the country in the form of interest and dividends. The long-term nature of the balance of payments deficit predetermines the unstable position of the lira in the foreign exchange markets. Inflation is an important factor in this process.
The problem for the economy is the increase in the scale of debt service, which absorbs up to 11% of GDP. The increase in business activity was accompanied by inflationary trends.
The existing economic model with active participation of the state in the entrepreneurial sphere has provided Italy with the highest economic growth rates in the EEC over the past two decades. In recent years, it has been under great pressure from outside, as it does not contribute to the goals of integration processes aimed at creating an economic and monetary union in Western Europe.
Considering the international economic relations of Great Britain, several aspects can be distinguished.
Foreign direct investment in the British Isles increased rapidly. Their total volume almost caught up with British foreign investment, which led to a reduction in net income in the country in this area.
Foreign trade turnover is reduced to a large deficit, the bulk of which falls on the FRG and Japan. The largest negative balance is formed in the groups of foodstuffs, minerals, automobiles, clothing and footwear. The UK has also become a net importer of high-tech goods, patents and licenses.
The transformation of Great Britain into an oil-exporting country led to the emergence in the first half of the 1980s. positive balance on current account balance of payments. The sharp decline in oil prices and other unfavorable changes in the balance of payments caused a large deficit, which weakened the country's foreign exchange position. Large and sustainable net income comes from international services. The UK accounts for 10% of global service exports.
To reiterate, it should be noted that in international relations, Japan occupies the first place
Japan's main counterparties in foreign trade operations are the United States, which accounts for almost 35% of exports and more than 20% of imports; the countries of Southeast Asia and the Far East, whose shares are approximately 25% each; as well as Western European states, which account for about 20% of export earnings and 15% of imports.
In terms of foreign trade turnover, Japan ranks third, exporting a fifth of the manufacturing industry, incl. about 40% of engineering products. At the same time, Japan ranks first in the world in the export of ships. The main objects of import to Japan are various raw materials that the country does not have. At the same time, Japan's foreign trade balance is consistently positive.
Conclusion
Summing up my work, I would like to note the following features and facts regarding the historical development and current position of industrially developed countries in the world economy, domestic and international relations.
In the historical focus of the social development of Western countries, a three-layer structure has developed, based on an all-encompassing commodity-capitalist economy. The political superstructure is made up of state institutions of representative democracy. Between them there is a structure of an amateur organization of voluntary membership. They are connected with the state, primarily through political parties. The state implements the political domination of the leading class in bourgeois society, and the institutions of civil society - its ideological and moral leadership.
In recent years, the world economy, as a whole, experienced economic and financial crises, which could not but affect the state of developed countries, due to their some dependence on each other. But these circumstances contributed to some growth in developing countries.
In 2001 (according to The Financial Times) the global commercialization of genetically modified crops increased significantly. Moreover, the main share of the increase falls on farmers in developing countries, and the United States is the supplier of the idea and technology, which again proves the superiority of the scientific and technological potential of industrialized countries (in this case, the example of the United States, which occupies the first place in this area).
With all this, there is cooperation with developing countries and some dependence on each other, which is shown by the creation by the private and public sectors of the non-profit group ISAAA, the purpose of which is to introduce biotechnologies into the economies of developing countries, developed in industrialized countries.
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Developing countries in the world economy
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Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ..............3
1. general characteristics developing countries...............................................5
1.1. Key Features of Developing Countries...............................................................5
1.2. General characteristics of the economic situation of developing countries .............................................................. ................................................. ...........6
2. Subsystems of developing countries............................................... ....................9
3. Integration groupings of developing countries...............................................16
4. Developing countries in the world economy............................................... ....25
4.1. a brief description of Economies of developing countries...............25
4.1.1. Country Economy Latin America...........................................25
4.1.2. The economy of the countries of the South East Asia.........................................27
4.1.3. Economy of the countries of South Asia ....................................................... .........29
4.1.4. Economies of West Asia and North Africa .............................30
4.1.5. Economies of Sub-Saharan Africa...............................................31
4.2 External development factors for developing countries...............................................33
4.3 The role of developing countries in the world economy.......................................36
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ..........43
List of references .............................................................................. ...................45
Introduction
The classification adopted by the UN - the division of the countries of the world into "industrialized", "developing" and countries with a "centrally planned economy" unites extremely different countries into one group.
Developing countries make up the largest group by number, with approximately 140 countries located in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania. Most of them entered the international arena as a result of the rapid collapse of the colonial system and the formation of young independent nation-states. In the 50-60s of the 20th century for the period 1943-1963. 51 countries gained political independence. More than half of the world's population lives in developing countries, but they account for less than 20% of the world's manufacturing output and only 30% of agricultural output.
A common feature of developing countries is socio-economic backwardness. Diversified economy with various forms of ownership, including archaic ones, the influence of traditional institutions in society, high population growth rates, predominantly raw materials specialization in the international division of labor, strong dependence on the influx of foreign capital, underdevelopment of economic structures, low level productive forces - factors preventing the overcoming of backwardness.
The former colonies left the young national states as a legacy of dependence on external markets and external sources of accumulation. The development of the countries of this group is not only low, but also unique in nature. The main differences between industrialized and developing countries lie not only in the structure and level of development of their economies, but also in the features of the territorial structure of the economy. Developing countries today face very complex and large-scale tasks in the development of the national economy and gaining economic independence from developed countries.
Modern world economic development is inextricably linked with the problem of underdevelopment of developing countries. In an internationalized world economy, the progress of each subsystem and national economies largely depends on the state of all the constituent parts as a whole. Developing countries are making efforts to get out of the position of the poorest and poorest states. Over the past decades, changes have taken place in the economic and social development of the world economy, in the positions of developing countries. Their national economies have become more diversified. In a number of countries, the manufacturing industry has taken the main place in production, and the face of agriculture is changing.
1. General characteristics of developing countries
The economic condition of the developing countries and their problems directly affect the vast majority of mankind. These countries are characterized by an extremely variegated appearance, different conditions and levels of social and economic development. At the same time, there are a number of features that unite developing countries into a special group of states. The commonality of these features has social, economic and historical roots.
1.1. Key Features of Developing Countries
By the time of liberation, the economies of the former colonies and semi-colonies were characterized by some common features, the most important of which were:
pre-capitalist forms of economy;
· the agrarian-raw material orientation of the economy with a general multistructural economy with a predominance of underdevelopment of productive forces, primarily in the manufacturing industry;
· the domination of foreign monopoly capital, its deep penetration into the national economy and its control over the natural resources of the liberated countries;
Relative weakness, underdevelopment of local national capital, limited capacity not only in the world, but also in the domestic market;
· the narrowness of the internal market, since a significant part of the population of young states received the bulk of their livelihoods from subsistence farming, and the share of wage laborers in the total population was insignificant;
· uncompensated export of a significant part of the national income in the form of profits of foreign monopolies, interest on foreign debt, etc.
One of the most important criteria for separating developing countries into a separate world subsystem is their underdevelopment and backwardness.
Underdevelopment It is expressed in the qualitative heterogeneity and systemic disorder of a society consisting of various economic and non-economic institutions of modern and traditional types, as well as transitional intermediate institutions.
Backwardness reflects the state of the economy of these countries, which is characterized by a low level of development of productive forces. Historically, backwardness is expressed in the form of a lag in the development of one type of society from another at the time of the colonization of the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. According to some estimates, the ratio of GDP per capita between the mother countries and the colonies in that period was approximately 2:1 in favor of the West. The colonialists, having seized the colonies and subjugated them to the needs of the mother countries, turned the backwardness into a chronic backwardness of the developing countries. In 1950, there were areas in the Third World where the standard of living was lower than in 1800, such as China. In general, in 1950, the standard of living in developing countries was estimated to be the same as in 1800, or, at best, only 10-20% higher.
1.2. General characteristics of the economic situation of developing countries
Developing countries occupy a relatively modest place in world production. The share of developing countries in world trade rose to 31% in 2004. The significance of the countries of the "third world" in the planetary economic system is determined by their richest natural and human resources. Behind the high resource endowment of the developing world, at the same time, there is a great unevenness in the endowment with minerals of its countries. Thus, 2/3 of developing countries do not have significant reserves of mineral and economic raw materials at all, and, consequently, many developing countries themselves depend on the import of these raw materials to ensure the functioning of their economies (for example, in South Asia, the share of regional imports reaches 28%).
Within the framework of the world economy, starting from the second half of the 20th century, developing countries have had a decisive influence on the formation of the world's population. In modern conditions, 80% of its growth falls on the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Developing countries in the initial period after gaining independence were characterized by fairly high average annual GDP growth rates (over 5% in the whole group of developing countries in 1965-1980). However, in recent decades they have slowed down significantly and amounted to 2.7% in 1982 - 1992. At the same time, with a general downward trend in the rates of economic growth in the developing world as a whole, their significant differentiation by region was observed. Production in East Asia increased steadily at high rates, while economic growth in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa experienced a sharp decline in economic growth.
Processes of differentiation have also led to a reduction in the share of the least developed countries in the world economy. For 1950 - 1986 the share of the 37 least developed countries in the total GDP of the third world has halved - from 32% to 16.5% with an almost stable share of the population.
Some states, classified as developing countries according to the classification adopted by the UN, in a number of indicators (for example, GDP per capita, the level of development of “pioneer” industries), not only approach developed countries, but sometimes even surpass them. These are, for example, the “new industrial countries” of Asia (the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, etc.). Nevertheless, the main characteristics of the socio-economic and political development of developing countries - the structure of the economy, dependence on foreign capital, the size of external debt, the territorial structure of the economy, the level of development of democracy, and others - still allow us to classify them as developing, and not economically developed. countries.
In many developing countries, as a rule, there are areas with different socio-economic structures - from a primitive appropriating economy and a subsistence economy to a modern commodity capitalist one. Moreover, natural and semi-natural ways are widespread over a large territory, although they are practically excluded from the general economic life of countries. Commodity structures are mainly associated with the external market (export orientation of the economy), which makes the national economy of most countries dependent on the world market conditions. A multi-structural, disintegrated economy is one of the main distinguishing features of developing countries.
The countries included in this large group are aware of the need for solidarity joint action in the struggle for their economic and political rights. Their interests were expressed by the "Group of 77" (now numbering about 130 states) and the "Non-Aligned Movement" (which unites more than 100 developing countries). They actively advocate equality, independence and the introduction of the New World Economic Order (NWEO) into the practice of international relations.
2. Subsystems of developing countries
Let us turn to the characteristics of individual types of countries in the group of developing countries.
Key countries - Brazil, India, Mexico in the early 90s were among the top twenty countries in the world in terms of GDP (respectively 10, 12 and 19 places). Their industrial output was virtually equal to that of all other developing countries. These states have great human potential, diverse reserves of minerals of world importance. A number of manufacturing industries produce high-tech and high-quality products.
Argentina and Uruguay stand out in a separate group – highly urbanized countries with rich agro-climatic resources and a high standard of living of the population. The lack of significant mineral reserves hindered the development of those industries that usually began industrialization in other countries, and the European Union's bans on the import of cheap agricultural products in order to support their farmers, introduced in the 1970s, began to hamper the development of the agricultural sector of these two states. . Nevertheless, in the MRI they appear as agrarian countries.
The main distinguishing feature of the economy countries of enclave outward-oriented development of capitalism is the existence of export-oriented enclaves of the mining industry, controlled by foreign capital and poorly connected with the national economy. They receive their main income from the development of deposits and the export of minerals (oil - in Venezuela, Iran and Iraq, copper and saltpeter - in Chile).
To countries externally oriented adaptive development include developing countries on all three continents - Asia, Africa and Latin America.
The economy of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and other countries in this group is focused on the export of minerals (raw materials) and products of tropical agriculture. A feature of the participation of many countries in the international division of labor is the "black" business - production and illegal drug transactions, the export of weapons for illegal political movements and labor immigration to richer countries.
In this group, they are distinguished by the level of economic development, developed national capital and the level of development of the manufacturing industry. new industrial countries (NIS) - South Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong. The economies of these countries in recent decades have developed at exceptionally high rates due to foreign investment, the introduction of the latest technologies and the availability of cheap and high-quality local labor.
A special place among the NIS is occupied by Hong Kong (in terms of GDP, this territory is in 39th place in the world, behind Argentina and ahead of Kazakhstan) and Singapore (57th in the world in terms of GDP). The rapid economic development of these territories in the 1960s-1990s. was due to the attraction of foreign investment. The attractiveness of Hong Kong and Singapore has provided a favorable geographical position - at the intersection of the world's most important traffic flows, developed infrastructure, skilled workforce and low taxes.
The newly industrialized countries are playing an ever-increasing role in the export of manufactured goods to the developed countries. The rapid development of NIS in recent decades, high GDP growth rates and high competitiveness of their products lead to the fact that the US customs authorities begin to refuse them preferential treatment, which is provided to developing countries.
To the group plantation countries include Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Haiti and other so-called " banana republics" Central America and the Caribbean.
Favorable agro-climatic conditions are the basis for the development of the plantation economy - the cultivation of dessert varieties of bananas, coffee, sugar cane. As a rule, plantations are owned by foreign, primarily American capital. The ethnic composition of the population was formed under the influence of the slave trade, a large proportion of blacks and mulattos. The political life of all countries, with the exception of Costa Rica, where the Creole population predominates, is characterized by political instability, in the recent past by frequent military coups and guerrilla movements. This group of countries can also include African countries such as Kenya, Côte d'Ivoire, etc.
Landlord countries - small-sized island and coastal independent states and properties located at the crossroads of the most important international transport routes. profitability geographical location, preferential tax policies have turned them into world leaders in terms of GDP per capita, the location of the headquarters of the largest transnational corporations and banks. Some of them have become home countries for ships of the fleets of all countries of the world (Cayman Islands, Bermuda, Cyprus, Panama, Bahamas, Liberia). Malta, Cyprus, Barbados and others are also world centers of tourism business.
A special place among developing countries is occupied by oil-producing monarchies of the Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, United United Arab Emirates, Oman), which over the past decades have turned from a backward nomadic periphery of the Arab world into the largest oil exporters in the world market.
Petrodollars made it possible to build modern cities, hotels, palaces and international airports, build highways, power and water supply systems, improve the national education and health system. Nevertheless, social life in these states still remained little transformed: Islam, the dominant religion, determines social and economic relations in society, as it did many centuries ago.
Among the developing countries, there is also a special group - 47 states, in whose territory 2.5% of the world's population lives. This least developed countries. These include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Guinea, Yemen, Mali, Mozambique, Chad, Ethiopia, Maldives, Madagascar, Nepal, Cambodia and others.
UN experts have proposed several criteria for singling out states into this group: 1) very low per capita income (less than $200 per year); 2) the proportion of literates in the total population is less than 20%; 3) the share of the manufacturing industry in the country's GDP is less than 10%. The main thing that characterizes these countries is a low level of socio-economic development with high population growth rates, the dependence of the economy on agriculture, where more than 2/3 of the economically active population is employed, and tribal relations and leaderism are still characteristic of most countries. In fact, all the global problems of mankind are most acutely manifested in these countries.
The states that have received the status of "least developed" enjoy special attention of the world community. They have the opportunity to receive credits, loans and humanitarian aid on preferential terms.
Below are data for some developing countries on GDP per capita for 2004.
| Place in the world | The name of the country | GDP per capita, $ |
| 9 | Hong Kong | 34200 |
| 29 | Singapore | 27800 |
| 31 | Monaco | 27000 |
| 34 | Taiwan | 25 300 |
| 35 | UAE | 25 200 |
| 38 | Brunei | 23600 |
| 41 | Qatar | 23200 |
| 44 | Kuwait | 21300 |
| 47 | Cyprus | 20300 |
| 51 | Bahrain | 19 200 |
| 52 | South Korea | 19 200 |
| 53 | Malta | 18 200 |
| 55 | Bahamas | 17 700 |
| 56 | Puerto Rico | 17 700 |
| 60 | Barbados | 16400 |
| 64 | Uruguay | 14500 |
| 68 | Mauritius | 12800 |
| 73 | Saudi Arabia | 12000 |
| 80 | Chile | 10700 |
| 83 | Malaysia | 9700 |
| 85 | Mexico | 9600 |
| 86 | Botswana | 9200 |
| 92 | Brazil | 8100 |
| 93 | Thailand | 8100 |
| 95 | Guadeloupe | 7900 |
| 98 | Iran | 7700 |
| 102 | Namibia | 7300 |
| 103 | Cyprus | 7135 |
| 107 | Panama | 6900 |
| 111 | Colombia | 6600 |
| 117 | Fiji | 5900 |
| 118 | Gabon | 5900 |
| 119 | Venezuela | 5800 |
| 121 | China | 5600 |
| 122 | Peru | 5600 |
| 129 | Philippines | 5000 |
| 134 | Paraguay | 4900 |
| 141 | Jamaica | 4100 |
| 142 | Sri Lanka | 4000 |
| 146 | Ecuador | 3700 |
| 148 | Indonesia | 3500 |
| 151 | Lesotho | 3200 |
| 159 | Vietnam | 2700 |
| 160 | Bolivia | 2600 |
| 167 | Pakistan | 2200 |
| 171 | Iraq | 2100 |
| 173 | Cambodia | 2000 |
| 175 | Cameroon | 1900 |
| 179 | Zimbabwe | 1900 |
| 184 | Myanmar | 1700 |
| 189 | Chad | 1600 |
| 192 | Haiti | 1500 |
| 195 | Nepal | 1500 |
| 196 | Butane | 1400 |
| 200 | Benin | 1200 |
| 201 | Mozambique | 1200 |
| 202 | Burkina Faso | 1200 |
| 207 | Kenya | 1100 |
| 208 | Nigeria | 1000 |
| 209 | Islands of Tokelau | 1000 |
| 210 | Eritrea | 900 |
| 211 | Zambia | 900 |
| 212 | Niger | 900 |
| 213 | Mali | 900 |
| 214 | Liberia | 900 |
| 215 | Afghanistan | 800 |
| 216 | Congo | 800 |
| 217 | Kiribati | 800 |
| 218 | Ethiopia | 800 |
| 219 | Madagascar | 800 |
| 220 | Yemen | 800 |
| 221 | West Bank of Jordan | 800 |
| 223 | DR Congo | 700 |
| 224 | Guinea-Bissau | 700 |
| 225 | Tanzania | 700 |
| 226 | Comoros | 700 |
| 227 | Burundi | 600 |
| 228 | Somalia | 600 |
| 229 | Gaza Strip | 600 |
| 230 | Sierra Leone | 600 |
| 231 | East Timor | 400 |
3. Integration groups
The international geographical division of labor is currently not so much expanding as deepening, acquiring new forms. The deepening of international specialization and exchange led to the merging of individual national economies. This is how international economic integration arose - a form of internationalization of productive forces, the process of intertwining national economies and pursuing a coordinated interstate economic policy both between the countries themselves and in relation to third countries.
Consider the integration groupings of developing countries.
LAI- a large integration group, created in 1980, replaced the previously existing LAST, which existed from 1961 to 1980.
The purpose of the LAI: the creation of a Latin American common market on the basis of the LAST (FTA) already established during the years of its existence.
Members of the organization are 11 countries, divided into 3 groups:
1. more developed (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico);
2. medium level (Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Uruguay, Chile);
3. least developed (Bolivia, Paraguay, Ecuador).
The members of the LAI have concluded an agreement on preferential trade among themselves and less developed countries are given preferences by more developed countries.
The supreme body of the LAI is the Council of Foreign Ministers, the executive body - the Conference of Assessments and Rapprochement - studies the levels of economic development, possible directions of integration, its impact on the economy, develops the stages and tasks of integration processes; meets once a year. The permanent body is the Committee of Representatives. The headquarters is in Montevideo (Uruguay).
Andean grouping- subregional grouping, created in 1978. The agreement entered into force in 1980.
Participants: Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Colombia, Peru, Suriname, Ecuador.
Purpose: joint study, development, use of the Amazon, protection of its resources; between countries, an equal distribution, on the basis of equal quotas, of financial investments is carried out.
The greatest successes have been achieved in the field of ecology. The Andean Environmental Information System has been established.
In addition, the document “General regime in respect of foreign capital, trademarks, patents and licenses” was adopted (Decision 24). This document is aimed at creating conditions for the use of foreign direct investment in the face of large external debt. At the same time, Latin American countries have sharply increased the requirements for environmental safety of projects.
Laplata group- established in 1969 as part of the LAI.
Goal: harmonization of development and protection of natural resources of the La Plata river basin
The headquarters is in Buenos Aires.
Amazon pact- Established in 1978.
The priority of this grouping is regional cooperation in the field of ecology, joint study and development of the resources of the Amazon.
CARICOM
The most stable grouping is CARICOM, established in 1973 on the basis of an agreement signed in Trinidad and Tobago. It includes 16 Caribbean countries and, unlike all integration groups, unites not only independent states, but also dependent territories.
CARICOM is based on an earlier FTA. It has various sub-regional branches; the most advanced in terms of regional integration are:
· The Caribbean Common Market within CARICOM, where trade restrictions between Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Jamaica and Antigua have been completely eliminated. These countries have approved a single customs tariff for goods from third countries, i.е. it is actually a customs union based on industrial raw materials. A third of mutual trade is oil products.
· Eastern Caribbean Common Market, which includes the least developed countries; it tends to create a common currency and a joint central bank.
1992 - a sharp drop in customs duties (by about 70%), integration in the field of agricultural production regulation is especially successful (document “Time to act”). A new model of integration was proposed based on the trend towards less government intervention.
1995 - free movement of citizens, the abolition of the passport regime.
MERCOSUR
In the 1980s, Argentina and Brazil signed an integration act, later joined by Paraguay and Uruguay. In March 1991, 4 countries signed the Treaty of Asuncion, which legalized MERCOSUR.
The population of 4 countries is 200 million people. The total GDP is $1 billion. At the same time, Brazil accounts for: 80% of the population, 43% of trade, about 60% of exports and 30% of imports.
MERCOSUR's goal:
ensuring coordination of macroeconomic policy, policy in the field of agriculture, tax and monetary systems;
to coordinate and bring to comparability the legislation in relation to economic policy;
Institutional structures, supranational bodies have been created:
1. Common Market Council - legislative and advisory body
2. Common market group - executive body
3. Arbitration court
The shortcomings of MERCOSUR: the heterogeneous political structure of the participating countries, the change of political regimes, the countries are undergoing reforms - all this together hinders the normal course of the integration process.
Association of States South-East Asia(ASEAN ) was formed on August 8, 1967 in Bangkok. It included Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, then Brunei Darussalam (in 1984), Vietnam (in 1995), Laos and Myanmar (in 1997), Cambodia (in 1999). Papua New Guinea has special observer status.
The statutory goals of the Bangkok Declaration on the Establishment of ASEAN were defined as promoting the development of socio-economic and cultural cooperation of the member countries, strengthening peace and stability in Southeast Asia (SEA).
The task of turning ASEAN into one of the world's political and economic centers of the multipolar world stimulated this regional grouping of countries to actively solve a number of extremely important tasks. These include: the formation of a free trade zone and an investment zone; the introduction of a single currency and the creation of a developed economic infrastructure, the formation special structure management.
The supreme body of ASEAN is the meetings of heads of state and government. The governing and coordinating body of the Association is the annual meetings of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs (FM). The current leadership of ASEAN is carried out by the Standing Committee, chaired by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the country hosting the next Ministerial Council. There is a permanent Secretariat in Jakarta headed by the Secretary General (since January 1998 - Filipino Rodolfo Severino). ASEAN has 11 specialized committees . In total, over 300 events are held annually within the framework of the organization. The 1976 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (Bali Treaty) of 1976 serves as the legal basis for relations between the ASEAN countries. The ASEAN Governance Scheme is attached.
In the economic field, the countries of the Association are pursuing a line of integration and liberalization in the SEA region on the basis of the ASEAN Free Trade Area Agreement (AFTA), the ASEAN Investment Area Framework Agreement (AIA) and the Basic Industrial Cooperation Scheme Agreement (AIKO).
The ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) is the most consolidated economic grouping of Asian countries. Its creation was announced at the 4th ASEAN Heads of State and Government Meeting in Singapore (1992). Initially, it included six countries of Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines and Brunei). In 1996, Vietnam joined AFTA, in 1998 - Laos and Myanmar, in 1999 - Cambodia.
By creating a free trade zone, the members of the Association set a goal to intensify intra-ASEAN trade in goods and services, expand and diversify sub-regional trade turnover and, in the context of growing mutual trade, increase the competitiveness of their economies. AFTA is also called upon to contribute to the political consolidation of the countries of the region, the involvement in economic cooperation of the less developed countries of Southeast Asia.
In October 1998, the Framework Agreement on the Establishment of the ASEAN Investment Zone was signed. The ASEAN Investment Zone (AIA) covers the territories of all member states of the Association and is one of the main instruments for attracting domestic and foreign investment by providing investors with national treatment, tax incentives, lifting restrictions on the share of foreign capital, etc.
ASEAN, based on the understanding of the need to deepen the liberalization of the economy, the impossibility of providing on its own the investments necessary for development advanced technologies, which could help the region take its rightful place in the world in the 21st century, decided to join efforts in this direction, gradually open the domestic market not only for trade, but also for investment, both to the member countries of the Association and to third countries.
In accordance with the AIA Framework Agreement, the members of the Association have undertaken to gradually open the main sectors of the national industry to investors from the member states of the Association until 2010 and to external investors until 2020.
However, in order to protect the local market, the Framework Agreement, like the CEPT Agreement, provides for the establishment of a Temporary Exception List and a Sensitive List listing industries where foreign investors will continue to be restricted.
The Basic Agreement on the ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme (AICO) was signed by ASEAN member states in April 1996.
The AIKO scheme regulates the production of all products except those included in the CEPT Treaty's General Exemption List and currently only applies to industrial production with a possible extension to other sectors of the economy. New scheme ASEAN industrial cooperation, while retaining some of the features of previous schemes, provides for a wider use of tariff and non-tariff methods of regulation.
AIKO's goals are: growth of industrial production; deepening integration; increased investment in ASEAN states from third countries; expansion of intra-ASEAN trade; improvement of the technological base; increasing the competitiveness of products in the world market; the growing role of the private sector.
In view of priority needs, increasing attention is being paid to the implementation of the Treaty on the Phased Establishment of African Economic Community (AfEC), the agreement on which entered into force in May 1994. The plan for the gradual - in six stages - the creation of the AfES should be implemented within 34 years. At the same time, since the main elements of the AfEC are already existing sub-regional groupings, in particular, ECOWAS, COMESA, SADC, SAMESGCA, UDEAC, for the first time in 20 years, priority attention is planned to be given to them, their comprehensive strengthening and increased coordination
their activities.
In West Africa, some of the increased activity Economic - Community of West African States (ECOWAS) which aims at the gradual creation of a common market in the region. ECOWAS was established in 1975 and consists of 16 states.
In July 1995, during the 18th ECOWAS summit, the updated Community Treaty (signed in Cotonou in 1993) officially came into force, with which a number of states of this subregion pin hopes for further intensification of cooperation and deepening of integration .
In November 1993 in Kampala (Uganda) the Agreement on
transformation of the Preferential Trade Area of the countries of Eastern and South Africa(PTA) to the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), which plans to form the Common Market by 2000, Monetary Union - by 2020, cooperation in the economic, legal and administrative spheres.
The idea for the Common Market was to merge the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the PTA into COMESA. However, in August 1994, at the SADC summit in Gaborone (Botswana), a decision was made on the separate existence of two organizations - in the southern and East Africa respectively. However,
The creation of the Common Market in this African region is hampered by the fact that there is a significant "difference" in economic development between the countries, the political situation and the monetary and financial sphere are not stable. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is a political and economic regional bloc created in 1992 on the basis of the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADC), which has existed since 1980. Currently, SADC includes 12 states. As conceived by the founders of SADC, the development of cooperation should proceed according to the principle of "flexible geometry" and the different pace of integration processes, both between individual countries and groups of countries 3 within the Community.
In Central Africa, in terms of economic integration, more or less dynamically developed Customs and economic union CA (UDEAC), which includes 6 countries. Over the 30 years of its existence, intra-regional trade has increased 25 times, a single external customs tariff has been introduced, based on the joint participation of the UDEAC countries in the “French franc zone”, the Monetary Union of Central Africa has been created, the central institution of which is the Bank of Central African States. It issues uniform means of payment for all participants. Within the framework of UDEAC, there are also credit cooperation bodies: the Central African Development Bank and the Solidarity Fund. The desire for integration, close mutually beneficial cooperation is also noted among the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Since 1981, the Cooperation Council of a number of Arab states has been established and is functioning, including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates and Oman (the “oil six”). In 1992, the creation of the Organization for Economic Cooperation of Central Asian States (ECO-ECO) was announced, which, according to the founders, should become a prototype of the future Central Asian common market, which should include the Muslim republics of the CIS - Central Asian, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan .
OPEC was formed at an international conference in Baghdad, held September 10-14, 1960. Initially, the organization included five countries: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Between 1960 and 1975 8 more countries were accepted: Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador and Gabon. In December 1992, Ecuador withdrew from OPEC, and in January 1995, Gabon was excluded from it. So OPEC is trade union developing countries that are oil exporters.
The task of OPEC was to present a common position of oil producing countries in order to limit the influence of the largest oil companies on the market. However, in reality, OPEC in the period from 1960 to 1973. could not change the balance of power in the oil market. The situation changed in the first half of the 1970s, when western world faced increased inflationary pressures and a shortage of raw materials. The lack of oil was especially acute: the United States, back in 1950. formerly self-sufficient in oil production, were now forced to import about 35% of oil products. At the same time, OPEC began to take a tougher stand on the principles of profit sharing in the oil market.
4. Developing countries in the world economy
4.1. Brief description of the economies of developing countries
4.1.1 Latin American economies
In terms of economic development, Latin America ranks first among other regions of the developing world, providing half of all industrial output.
From the mid-1970s, the first echelon of countries (Chile, Uruguay and Argentina) declared a transition to a new development strategy - liberal, that is, a sharp reduction in state intervention in investment, credit, foreign exchange and foreign trade operations and a narrowing of its participation in business activities proper. The key reform was privatization. Now the process of privatization is almost completed in Chile and Mexico, is nearing completion in Argentina and Peru, is on the rise in Uruguay, Ecuador and other countries.
The countries of Latin America managed to overcome the consequences of the severe economic crisis of the early 1980s and begin restructuring their national economic and technological structures. The foreign trade turnover increased, the flight of capital abroad was replaced by their inflow, and the overall productivity of labor increased. Aid provided by traditional partners, mainly the United States, played a big role.
Among the main goals of the reforms was the improvement of the financial system, overcoming inflation, and in a number of countries, hyperinflation. A brake on the path of transformation is the presence of a large external debt in a particular country.
The situation in the field of foreign trade is also problematic. Meanwhile, the liberalization of foreign trade has led not only to a growing shortage, but also to an influx of goods into the local market, which crowd out national products both in industry and agriculture.
The region as a whole is well endowed with all types of natural resources. There are large deposits of almost all ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, gold and silver. In the region caribbean one of the largest oil and gas basins in the world is located.
The economies of the Latin American countries are characterized by an uneven distribution of productive forces, considerable diversity in the levels and rates of growth, and a huge concentration of economic activity in a few industrial centers. 1/3 of the industrial potential of the region is concentrated in the zones of three giant cities: Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires. Huge disproportions exist in the distribution between the territories of energy supply countries, highways and railways, means of communication, etc. In Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, new, modern enterprises and industrial complexes have emerged in the field of machine tool building and instrument making, automotive and shipbuilding, aviation and nuclear industries, electronics and microelectronics. The manufacturing industry of Venezuela, Colombia, Peru and some other countries began to develop at an accelerated pace. There were metalworking, oil refining enterprises in the countries of Central America and the Caribbean.
The main trading partners of the countries of the region are the United States, as well as Japan and the countries of Western Europe. Exports are dominated by raw materials, fuel (80%) and agricultural products.
Agriculture is also characterized by uneven geographical distribution. At least 2/3 of the value of production is produced in Brazil, Mexico and Argentina. This unevenness is exacerbated by the deformed nature of agricultural production due to its dependence on the external market. A one-sided specialization in export crops has formed.
For Brazil and Colombia, the main export crop is coffee, for Ecuador - bananas, for Argentina - livestock and wheat, for Uruguay - livestock products, for Central America - coffee, bananas, cotton, for the Caribbean - sugarcane, bananas .
4.1.2. Economy of Southeast Asia
The region of Southeast Asia, consisting of 9 countries, is heterogeneous; in the post-war period, in the process of the formation and strengthening of national sovereignty, there was a demarcation into 2 groups of states. One of them - Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia - chose the path of socialist development, and the other, represented by the Association of Southeast Asia (ASEAN), which includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, and since 1984 - Brunei, went along the path of the market economy.
All countries started from approximately the same starting level. However, former socialist countries Asia has not been able to achieve such impressive results of economic development as neighboring ASEAN member countries. Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia had an agrarian orientation with a significant use of traditional methods of arable farming, were characterized by an almost complete absence of a manufacturing industry, widespread use of subsistence farming, and a traditional production structure. These countries have begun the transition to the market, but they still belong to the group of countries with low per capita income.
At the same time, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea are the newly industrialized countries of the “first wave”; Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia are the “second wave” NIEs and belong to middle-income countries.
Singapore and Brunei are countries with a high level of per capita income. True, success in the economic development of these countries was achieved due to various factors: Singapore is a state with a developed industrial potential, and Brunei is an oil-exporting country that receives a significant part of its GDP from oil production and export.
In general, Southeast Asia, as a special economic zone, was characterized by dynamic development. The economic growth rates of the countries of this region in the post-war period were among the highest in the world. Although, behind the external favorable picture, there was a deep differentiation in the rates of economic development of individual countries in Southeast Asia.
But due to the fact that the population of the region was 7.7% of the world's population, and their GNP was only 1.4% of the world product, the countries of Southeast Asia are characterized by a relatively low level of GNP per capita. However, it should be taken into account that the difference between these levels between the countries of the region and the industrialized states not only did not increase, but even decreased.
The implementation of foreign economic policy aimed at intensifying foreign economic relations has led to the fact that the region's exports and imports have grown at a rather high rate, and their share in world trade has increased even in years of unfavorable economic conditions.
The countries of Southeast Asia have a powerful export base, almost all of them are well endowed with natural resources, which are one of the important conditions for their economic development. They became the largest exporters of certain goods. For example, natural rubber, tin, copper, yarn, coconuts, palm oil, rice. There are significant reserves of oil, tungsten, chromium, bauxites, very large reserves of valuable timber, which are mainly exported.
The economic potential of the ASEAN countries is growing not only due to the development of the extractive industry or the agricultural sector, but primarily due to the creation of a developed manufacturing industry, which is represented by the traditional types of production for the Asian region - textile, clothing, as well as modern high-tech industries - electronic, electrical, chemical industry, mechanical engineering and production of equipment and equipment.
4.1.3. Economy of South Asia
South Asia includes 7 developing countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Republic of Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. There is poverty, underdevelopment, dependence on an unprecedented scale, and at the same time huge potential renewable resources.
Agro-raw materials monocultural specialization in the international division of labor is rooted in history. India and Sri Lanka are the largest producers and exporters of tea and spices, Bangladesh accounts for up to 80% of the world sale of jute and jute products, Pakistan's most important export item is cotton and its products. As a result, the possibility of a progressive restructuring of the economy is sharply limited, and painful dependence on internal and external market factors is recreated.
The productive forces formed various combinations of their types: patriarchal-pre-industrial, industrial and modern, associated with the scientific and technological revolution.
The first two types completely dominate in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives and Nepal - countries that belong, in accordance with the international classification, to the least developed. Pakistan and Sri Lanka are included in the middle group of countries that are developing - modern productive forces are of a cellular nature (in the areas of the military-industrial complex, light and food industries). All types of productive forces are most fully represented in India, which belongs to the NIS group.
Among the urgent problems of the region is poverty. The share of countries in the region in world economic performance contrasts sharply with the corresponding figures for population. During the years of independence, the poverty threshold has been almost doubled. But benchmarks such as per capita GNP and NI production in South Asia remain the lowest in the world.
Domestic sources of financing for economic development in the countries of the region, except for India, are very limited. Therefore, for them the main source of financial resources is foreign investment.
External debt has increased several times over the past ten years alone: in terms of its size, these countries are second only to the states of Latin America.
Small-scale production prevailing in the countries of the region is able to absorb mainly intermediate technologies, in particular equipment and technologies that are outdated for developed countries, but suitable for use here, taking into account comparative advantages (for example, cheap work). The development and dissemination of innovations remains mainly under the control of TNCs and their local affiliates.
The strongest position of transnational business in India. There are almost 300 branches and subsidiaries TNCs (Great Britain, USA, Germany, Japan, France, etc.) and over 2000 general companies.
4.1.4. Economics of West Asia (Middle East) and North Africa .
The role of the countries of this region in the world economy is determined by the presence of large explored reserves of oil and natural gas, their share in the production of these carbohydrates, as well as significant gold and foreign exchange reserves.
During the period of independent economic development, the states achieved quite significant success. The almost threefold increase in the share of the region in the world product over 20 years was achieved due to the high growth rates of its own GDP. The average annual GDP growth rates of the countries of the region were ahead of those of industrialized countries with a market economy. The level of GDP per capita has become quite high for countries.
Most of the countries in the region are well endowed with natural resources, therefore they have a strong export base and are active in foreign trade. Undoubtedly, the main wealth of the region is fuel resources.
The Arab countries of the Persian Gulf have the lowest production costs and the highest labor productivity in the world in the oil and gas industry, due to favorable natural conditions.
Agricultural products account for 3.3% of the region's total exports, the share of the mining industry is 78.2%, and the manufacturing industry is 17.5%. The structure of exports of oil-producing and oil-importing countries differs significantly. Thus, at least 70% of the export earnings of the main exporters of oil and gas to the world market accounted for fuel resources. At the same time, the share of manufacturing products of these countries ranges from 1.7% in Iraq to 13.7% in Kuwait. Oil-importing countries in the region, or those that exported oil on a limited scale (for example, Syria), had a more diversified export structure. A significant share of exports is for food and agricultural raw materials.
There is a high dependence of the region's export earnings, its fate in world exports and economic development in general on the situation on the world market for fuel resources.
4.1.5. Economy of the countries of Tropical Africa
After gaining independence, African countries hoped that this would automatically give impetus to their economic development. But this did not happen, and most countries began to degrade. First of all, this applies to the countries of Tropical Africa, that is, Eastern, Western, Central and Southern Africa, which are often called sub-Saharan countries.
In the 60s and 70s, attempts to eliminate the economic backwardness of the African region were associated with the priority development of the public sector, attracting foreign investment, and increasing the foreign trade quota. In the 80s, the IMF recommended a “structural adjustment” model, that is, the rejection of active state intervention in the economy, the stabilization of the financial system, the development of market mechanisms, the formation of the foundations of private entrepreneurial activity and the strengthening of the private sector in leading industries. In the 90s, this model received further development, its priority was the privatization of enterprises. Since the mid-1990s, there have been positive developments: in 33 least developed countries, GDP grew from 2 to 4%. In the structure of the economy, there is an acceleration in the growth of industry. At the same time, an inefficient public sector, an underdeveloped economic infrastructure, political instability, interstate conflicts, a reduction in foreign investment, a growing external debt, limited economic independence due to IMF requirements, and problems entering foreign markets complicate the implementation of this model. State-owned enterprises are characterized by low indicators: low competitiveness of products, shortage of funds, high dependence on imported equipment and technology, shortage of qualified personnel. The predominance of traditional ways in the agrarian sector determines the low productivity of extensive farming and animal husbandry based on archaic forms and a primitive material and technical base.
One of the most developed and technically equipped industries is the mining industry. Its development is associated, first of all, with the high activity of foreign capital, and its share in the structure of the economy - with the presence of appropriate mineral reserves. The development of the manufacturing industry in Africa is associated with the import of technology and equipment, the use of skilled foreign labor. The processing of raw materials for export, metallurgy, the chemical industry, and the production of consumer goods are developing.
Africa is characterized by an open economy and focus on foreign markets - the share of exports in GNP is 27.1%. The region is extremely interested in the inflow of foreign investments. But the outlook for foreign investment is bleak.
The share in world trade is small, but foreign trade is of great importance for the development of the region.
4.2. External factors of development of developing countries.
The economic development of developing countries is closely related and largely determined by changes in the world economy. At the same time, inclusion in the world economy cannot be unambiguously assessed, since it is associated with the complication of the problems of developing countries due to the backwardness of the economic structures of most of them, the low international competitiveness of products, and dependence (especially in technology) on developed countries.
The backwardness of developing countries predetermines them addiction from the industrialized countries of the West. The economic development of the colonies was determined not by the needs of the latter, but by the needs of the metropolises, which exported raw materials from them. The needs of the mother countries for raw materials determined the dynamics of the economic development of the colonies, that is, the impulses for economic development came from the Western countries. The situation has changed little in recent decades.
Dependent development is manifested in the foreign economic relations of developing countries. The backward structure of the economy, the low level of productive forces, their traditionally agrarian and raw material specialization, and the colonial past determined the foreign economic orientation of the developing countries towards the industrial states of the West. Their foreign economic relations are developing mainly along the South-North line. The low level of labor productivity leads to a discrepancy between the individual costs of developing countries and the socially necessary international ones. This leads to the loss of part of the surplus product by these countries in the process of exchange, which is objectively reflected in the proportions and dynamics of world prices.
Unfavorable competitive conditions are often used by TNCs, which have penetrated deeply into the economies of many countries, to impose monopoly prices on developing states, which deviate downwards when buying and upwards when selling from the prevailing global prices. This happens in those markets where the dominance or collusion of TNCs allows them to break the competition mechanism and capture additional profits.
As a result, dependence manifests itself in relations of dominance and subordination, which have been realized economically in recent decades. It covers many types of links between industrial and developing countries, affects politics, ideology, culture. This, however, does not mean that the centers of capitalism control the processes of development of the countries of the Third World. The degree of dependence of each particular state can change - weaken or increase. This is largely due to the state of the world economy, the nature of the economic and social policies of developing countries, contributing to the development of either "branch" or national economy.
Now the following factors are becoming more and more apparent:
1. International trade began to be characterized by high growth rates, the share of finished industrial products began to prevail in exports. The geographical orientation has changed, there has been an expansion of trade relations according to the South-South scheme. In terms of foreign trade growth, they overtake developed countries.
2. Decreasing efficiency of commodity exports. Primary agricultural products, raw materials and fuels are historically traditional export items (up to 70% of all export earnings, and up to 90% in Tropical Africa). This situation significantly limits the flexibility of the economy, which reacts to fluctuations in world prices. In recent years, the advantages of developing countries have been destroyed, as declining energy intensity, material intensity and labor intensity of production, the spread of synthetic substitutes, and the high efficiency of the agro-industrial complex in developed countries are squeezing demand for raw materials. And as a result - a fall in prices for most types of raw materials on the world market in the long term, a deterioration in the terms of trade for exporters. Attempts to compensate for losses by increasing the production and export of raw materials lead to destructive growth and a growing deficit in the balance of payments.
3. Expansion of industrial exports. During the period of import-substituting strategies, labor-intensive industrial goods (ready-made clothes, shoes, food products, toys, jewelry, etc.) were exported. Modern strategies are aimed at both increasing the volume of industrial exports and developing new types of products in accordance with world production and quality standards.
4. foreign capital, both in the form of state aid and private foreign capital, is the main financial resource for economic development. State development assistance includes guarantors, technical assistance, consulting services, loans on concessional terms. The net inflow of financial resources is about 28 billion dollars. Now state aid is aimed at stimulating reforms to liberalize the economy, including programs for structural adaptation. Foreign direct investment comes mainly from TNCs, they are unevenly distributed among countries, concentrating in 10 countries in Latin America, South and Southeast Asia. The volume of income depends on political and economic stability, the level of infrastructure, the capacity of the domestic market, and the availability of a disciplined workforce. Portfolio investments are focused primarily on countries with high growth rates (countries of Southeast Asia), whose currencies are pegged to the dollar, their share in GDP has reached 3.4%.
The share of industry in developing countries in world production has risen to 24%. This growth was mainly due to the countries of East and Southeast Asia (including China), which tripled their share, while the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America remained almost at the same level. An important feature was the development of new industries: electrical and transport equipment, rolled products, chemical fertilizers, oil refining.
4.3. The role of developing countries in the world economy
Active participation in the international division of labor, an extensive system of world economic relations, mediating cross-country flows of material and financial resources, have long become an indispensable condition for economic progress. Having joined the world community as independent states, developing countries since the early 1970s have been increasingly striving to participate in the international division of labor.
An important feature of the economy of the developing world is its significant focus on foreign markets and, as a result, a fairly high degree of involvement in the international division of labor. The need for their participation in the international division of labor is also explained by the fact that they do not produce a number of goods necessary for reproduction. At the same time, they are producers of raw materials and a number of components that are so necessary for industrialized countries. MRI includes many areas of economic activity in developing countries. First of all, the production of raw materials and finished goods, which form the basis of international trade, which ensures the movement of the predominant part of all economic resources between developing countries and the rest of the world. International trade for developing countries, especially for the poorest, remains the most reliable source of external income. Up to 56% of all merchandise exports of developing countries are sold in the market of industrialized countries.
On the world market, a group of developing countries acts mainly as suppliers of mineral, economic, agricultural raw materials and food products. The export of these products provides developing countries with 50 - 100% of export earnings.
In the structure of imports of developing countries, the main items are machinery, equipment, technologically sophisticated industrial products (about 34% on average) and other manufactured products (37%). The countries of Tropical Africa and South Asia are also characterized by a rather high share in regional food imports (16% and 10%, respectively). In addition, in South Asia and the Latin America and Caribbean region, more than 10% of regional imports are fuel and energy products.
Development and restructuring of commodity exports of developing countries.
For a number of traditional goods, shares are being redistributed among the developing countries themselves. Thus, from the 1970s to the 1990s, there was a decrease in the share of Africa in the total exports of developing countries. It fell by more than 2 times (from 1.7% to 8%) with a constant increase in supplies from Asian countries. Those developing countries where raw materials are the basis of exports are in dire need of finding additional export resources that can slow down the deterioration of their positions in the world market.
In connection with the decrease in the material and energy intensity of the industry of industrial countries, the importance of natural raw materials in international trade has a clearly defined downward trend. The main opposition to this trend on the part of developing countries was the diversification of exports: the processing of exported raw materials, the promotion of other types of industrial products to the world market, etc.
Despite many challenges in expanding the export of traditional goods, the share of developing countries in total world exports is gradually but steadily increasing. Thus, in 1992 it increased to 24.7% against 22% in 1987, and in 2004 it reached a record high of 31%. In the mid-1990s, the physical volume of their exports continued to grow. Thus, there is a restructuring of the total exports of developing countries. The share of industrial products (including non-ferrous metals) in the exports of developing countries in the early 1990s reached 57.7% (excluding mineral fuels - 77.3%). The share of developing countries in world industrial exports is also growing. In 1991, it reached 19.5% compared with 11% in 1980 and 7.6% in 1970. The 1990s testify to the constancy of the trend towards an increase in the share of developing countries in world exports. In the mid-90s, their share exceeded 25% due to the growth in exports of industrial products.
A particularly significant role in the growth of industrial exports is played by machinery and equipment, the export of which in 1970-1991. grew more than 90 times. They accounted for 35.7% of the total increase in industrial and 22% of total merchandise exports. The export quota of developing countries is growing faster than that of industrialized countries. So, if the first for the period 1960-1990. increased by more than 2 times, the second - by less than 2/3.
Convincing confirmation of this truly historic shift in the growth of exports of developing countries and its commodity structure is the increase in their role in world trade: 10 of the 14 most significant types of engineering products in terms of value.
Behind the general figures for the increase in the share of developing countries in world industrial exports are the achievements of individual countries that are not identical in essence and volume. So, some countries for the period 1980-1992. managed to increase its participation in the international division of labor due to the export of raw materials (about 12 countries, for example, Iran, Congo, Laos, Bolivia, Paraguay, etc.). The rest of the countries increased their own share in world exports through active promotion of manufacturing products to foreign markets. In turn, among this group, the successes of individual countries also vary significantly. Ahead are the new industrial countries. Other developing countries have contributed a much smaller share and efforts to increase the industrial component of exports. And some, such as Nigeria, Africa's largest country, have even reduced their share of industrial exports.
Assessing the results of the participation of developing countries in the international division of labor on the example of international trade, one can see that the world economy is being reconstructed very unevenly. While a number of countries use the achievements of scientific and technological progress, most of the developing world still relies on traditional and, in part, pre-industrial industrial technologies.
Describing the general situation with the position of developing countries in world trade, one should point out the possibility that the least developed countries will increasingly be "squeezed out" from the system of international economic relations. This is the conclusion of the authors of the report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). According to the authors of the report, the global trade pact within the framework of the Uruguay Round of GATT implies a reduction in subsidies for the export of agricultural products. This dealt a heavy blow to the underdeveloped countries. The cost of wheat, sugar, meat and other products will rise. Accordingly, the total annual trade deficit of the poorest countries by 2000 will increase by $300-600 billion. give rise to any particular crisis situations.
With a decrease in the share of raw materials and foodstuffs in world trade, specialization in their production loses its driving function. Raw material specialization in supporting economic growth can only play an auxiliary role. To give it the necessary dynamics is possible only by mastering such a segment of international economic exchange as the market for the simplest industrial goods, the production of which employs a large number of workers.
Trends in the development of international trade show that in the last decade, the importance and volume of various kinds of services has been growing rapidly. Developing countries can actively use and are already using their opportunities along this path. For example, tourism and labor services through the export of labor to perform various kinds of simple and, as a rule, low-paid jobs.
For many developing countries, tourism has long been one of the most important sources of foreign exchange. Thus, for Egypt, tourism is the third most important source of hard currency after foreign exchange remittances from Egyptian workers temporarily employed abroad and foreign aid. In recent years, foreign tourism has been developing especially rapidly in Turkey (8% per year compared to 4% of global tourism growth). Turkey is among the five countries with the most dynamic development of this sector of the national economy. It is expected that by 2005 the republic will take the 6th place in the world in terms of income from tourism. The country wins in competition with its main rivals - Greece and Spain, due to the relatively low cost of recreational services.
Foreign exchange earnings from the export of labor in recent years have increased most rapidly in developing countries - 10% per year. Receiving significant sums annually from this source, many developing countries have created a kind of export specialization in labor services. Often it is one of the most important sources of foreign exchange income. From the beginning of the 1980s to the present, the export of labor has had the strongest impact on the economy of Pakistan. For Pakistan, the remittances of workers from abroad are more than 5 times the income from the export of goods and services. For Egypt, this figure is 40%, Morocco - 50%, Turkey - 60%, India - 80%.
The vast majority of developing countries are net importers of both foreign direct investment and loan capital.
For 1986 - 1990 the total inflow of foreign direct investment into developing countries amounted to 131 billion dollars, and their outflow - 28 billion dollars. The regional distribution of the flow of foreign direct investment in the developing world is uneven. At the country level, ten major recipients are clearly identified: Argentina, Brazil, Hong Kong, Egypt, China, Malaysia, Mexico, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand. These ten countries and territories account for up to 13% of all foreign direct investment in the world and 68% of all foreign direct investment in developing countries.
The main exporters of foreign direct investment are a very small group of countries located mainly in East, South, Southeast Asia and Latin America. The largest exporters are South Korea and Taiwan.
Most of the accumulated direct investment from NIS Asia is concentrated in North America and Western Europe, mainly in the manufacturing and service sectors. In the countries of East, South and Southeast Asia in the second half of the 80s. foreign direct investments were also mainly made in the manufacturing industry.
The largest capital exporters in Latin America are Brazil and Venezuela.
The inflow of loan capital into developing countries is carried out both in the form of foreign credits through interstate lines and in the form of foreign private loans. The introduction of loans is associated with the growth of the external debt of developing countries. Thus, the external debt of the developing world amounted to $966.5 billion in 1985, $1288.4 billion in 1990 and $1419.4 billion in 1992.
The largest debtors in the developing world are: Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, India, Indonesia, Egypt, and China. The predominant part of the public long-term debt of developing countries is currently owned by foreign public creditors.
Another characteristic feature of the influx of external financial resources into developing countries in the 80s. was the increase in the share of foreign government subsidies (gratuitous aid). In the early 90s. it roughly matched, or even exceeded, net foreign government lending to developing countries. The largest recipients of international aid are the countries of Tropical Africa.
Conclusion
Developing countries are a special category of states that retain, albeit to varying degrees, certain common signs of socio-economic backwardness, including a diversified economy, traditional forms of ownership and public institutions, and low productivity of social labor.
Features of modern world development are inextricably linked with the processes taking place in developing countries, covering most of the world's states. The last two decades have shown huge differences in the economic development of the two main subsystems. The gap in the levels of economic development between industrialized and developing countries has widened. Huge gaps in the levels of economic development in the world economic system are not conducive to its structural development, increasing the efficiency of world production and maintaining the pace of economic development. These issues have a significant impact on the international economic life and demand a decision.
In the course of socio-economic development, the community of developing countries is undergoing significant changes, and stratification into subgroups is intensifying. The main increase in the manufacturing industry, exports of finished products was provided by a small group of new industrial countries (NIS). The increase in their role is not only the result of differences in the factors and conditions of development of these countries, but also the impact of external circumstances on them. Differences in growth rates, the speed of economic modernization and the impact of the world economy contribute to the differentiation of developing countries.
The socio-economic strategies of developing countries aim to overcome backwardness, transform traditional economic structures, change positions in the international division of labor, and integrate into the world economy. The method of achieving these goals in most developing countries has become industrialization according to two main models - import-substituting and export-oriented.
Socio-economic processes in developing countries are increasingly shaped by the influence of the world economy. This is primarily due to the impulses of scientific and technological progress, spreading from developed to developing countries, the growing importance of world trade, as well as the activity of TNCs.
The lack of domestic resources, the decline in prices for major export commodities, the growth of neo-protectionism on the part of developed countries, which makes it difficult to expand the exports of developing countries, increase the need for external borrowing.
Receipts of funds from interstate development assistance programs and from international financial organizations, attraction of private foreign capital expand the financial and technical resources of developing countries. At the same time, limited efficiency in the use of borrowed funds and growing external debt repayments have become a constant factor complicating the socio-economic situation.
List of used literature
1. Bulatova A.S., "World Economy": Textbook. ed. "Lawyer" 2000 Moscow 2. Kolesov V.P., Osmova M.N. "World economy. Economy of foreign countries. M, 2001
3. Lomakin V.K. "World economy" Moscow. 2000
4. Miklashevskaya N.A., Khokhlova A.V. “International Economics” Textbook, ed. Delon Service, Moscow State University. 1998 Moscow.
5. Nikolaeva I.P. "World Economy" Moscow. 2000
6. http://www.altnet.ru/~rim/lekcicon/020/liter3.htm - Types of countries by level of socio-economic development
7. http://www.atrus.ru/mpl/face?id=3262 - History of OPEC: market laws against political games
8. http://cis.minsk.by/main.aspx?uid=664 - Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
9. http://enbv.narod.ru/text/Econom/avdokushin-meo/str/p48.html - Place and role of developing states in international trade
10. http://rating.rbc.ru/graphs/full.shtml?2005/12/02/1690778 - Rating of countries by GDP per capita
11. http://search.5ballov.ru/search.shtml - Integration processes in the developing world
12. http://search.5ballov.ru/search.shtml - Developing countries: position in the global economy
One of the main indicators of the level of economic development of individual countries and their groupings is the size of GDP per capita. It is calculated according to the UN methodology based on the purchasing power parity of national currencies (PPP) and in constant chains. In developed countries, this indicator (calculated in prices and PPPs of national currencies in 1993) amounted to 21.5 thousand dollars in 1997 against 5.7 thousand dollars in the world as a whole, 3-15 thousand dollars. in developing countries, 5.5 thousand dollars - in the former socialist countries of Europe and 3.1 thousand dollars - in the CIS countries. Thus, in terms of GDP per capita, the developed countries were ahead in 1997. the world average by 3.7 times, developing countries - by 6.8 times, the former socialist countries of Europe - by 3.9 times, the CIS countries - by 6.7 times.
The developed countries have concentrated on their territory a significant part of world social production. With a population of 840.5 million people (14.2% of the total population of the Earth), in 1997 they produced a GDP worth 18,070 billion dollars (52.8% of the world's volume). In addition, they are expanding their control over the economies of other states through foreign trade, a system of foreign investments, a network of transnational corporations (TNCs), the monopolization of scientific and technological achievements, etc.
Increasing dominance of corporations, more frequent crises of overproduction, especially the Great Depression of 1929-1933, required strengthening of state regulation of the economy, as the market mechanism of self-regulation could no longer cope with such manifestations of economic instability as inflation, unemployment, and production declines.
A noticeable increase in the role of the state in the economies of developed countries occurred after the Second World War, as a result of which the so-called "mixed" economy was formed in most of them, in which, with the dominant role of private business, a significant place belongs to the public sector.
Depending on the ratio of the public sector and the market elements of the economic mechanism, several models of a “mixed” economy in developed countries can be distinguished:
liberal (American) model, which is characterized by the priority role of private property, a market-competitive mechanism in the sphere of production, marketing, investment, the use of labor, a high level of social differentiation. The government regulates the economy at the macro and micro levels through legislation, tax and monetary policy in order to develop competition and limit the power of monopolies, mitigate market failures, protect the interests of certain social groups, etc. This model is typical for the USA, Canada, the economic systems of Great Britain, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, France are approaching it to a certain extent;
social market (German) model, which is a social market economy in which a competitive market mechanism is complemented by the creation of a special social infrastructure. It provides constant support for those who experience difficulties in unregulated capitalism (low-income families, the unemployed, youth, small and medium-sized firms). The state assumes broad obligations in ensuring the well-being of those who cannot independently provide a sufficient level of income, and shows great economic activity;
swedish model, common in Sweden, other Scandinavian countries, Australia. It is characterized by a high level of social guarantees based on a broad redistribution of income and the search for social consensus. This characteristic is complemented by strong trade unions and diverse “free associations”, which contribute to the coordination of public and private interests, as well as the development of the ideology of social partnership, enshrined in agreements between entrepreneurs and trade unions, which is implemented through negotiations between participants in the political process. This model is also called corporatist, since economic decisions are carried out by voluntary and constant coordination of the conflict goals of various groups with the active participation of the state.
A variation on the Swedish model is Japanese model. It is a model of regulated corporate capitalism, in which the possibilities of private accumulation of capital are combined with the active role of the state in the field of economic development programming, structural, investment, foreign economic and social policy, with a low share of the state in the business sector. The state pays special attention to improving the qualifications of the labor force through its continuous professional training. The Japanese model is also characterized by a combination of the most advanced forms of organization of production and labor with national traditions. Therefore, the Japanese model of economic development is also called hierarchical corporatism.
A developed market economy over the past centuries has demonstrated its advantages over other economic systems: flexibility and adaptability to changes in productive forces, the ability to master the achievements of scientific and technical progress, quickly respond to changes in consumer demand and fully satisfy it.
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Interaction of the world economy and national economies
Interstate economic integration received a new impetus in its development in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when many previously relatively
New trends in the development of the world economy
An analysis of the modern world economy and the integration processes taking place in it allows us to single out two main trends. One of them is the quantitative growth of countries united in various
Lecture 2. Subjects of the modern world economy and a system of indicators characterizing their place in the world economy
The subjects of world economic relations are private (individual) persons and organizations (legal entities) engaged in the implementation of international economic transactions. From pose
General patterns of economic development
For the last quarter of the XX century. the economies of developed countries experienced three cyclical downturns in the periods: 1974-1977, 1980-1982 and 1990-1993. Moreover, unlike the dynamics cycle of the 70s, the 80s-90s
Foreign economic activity of developed countries
The dominant role of developed countries can be traced in all major areas of foreign economic activity. Thus, the share of OECD countries in world exports in the last four years has steadily increased
The main features of the Western European economy
Western Europe is provided with the most important factors of production to a completely different degree. It is rather poor in natural resources, noticeably yielding here to a number of other regions and countries.
General characteristics of the US economy
Throughout American history, favorable geographic and natural factors have contributed to the socio-economic development of the country, such as:
Economy of Japan. general characteristics
Japan's rapid economic growth after the end of World War II, dubbed the Japanese economic miracle, brought it to the attention of the world. stremle
The main features of the socio-economic model of Russia
The current position of Russia in the world economy is characterized by contradictory trends. On the one hand, it has significant natural and labor resources, a large
General characteristics of reforms in modern Russia
In recent years, Russia is going through one of the most dramatic periods in its history. Totalitarianism collapsed - the communist regime. The Greatest Empire Ever Created Council
General characteristics of developing countries
By the time of liberation, the economy of the former colonies and semi-colonies was characterized by some common features, the most important of which were:
The main trends in the economies of developing countries in the late XX - early XXI century.
In the 1970s, a historic turning point occurred in the dynamics of the gap between industrialized and developing countries. The rate of reduction of the gap in terms of GDP per capita in 1971-1985. compound
External debt
The most acute problem of developing countries at the turn of XX and XXI centuries. remains foreign debt. In recent decades, especially in the 1990s, there has been a systematic decline in prices
Economic problems of developing countries
Significant severity at the turn of the millennium in developing countries has become uncontrolled processes of destruction of the natural environment, which can become not only the cause of political instability
The history of the emergence and solution of global problems
Mankind has recently crossed the threshold of millennia, crossed this frontier, carrying behind its back the burden of accumulated problems, which are more and more clearly manifesting themselves. By By
Major global issues
Among the swarm of problems, the resolution of which is an urgent need today, the following are considered to be the main ones: a) Socio-economic problems, the problem of age
Causes of global problems
a) Immediate factors that led to the aggravation of global problems in the 20th century What was the cause that led to the aggravation of global problems in the 20th century? Like a human
Ways to solve global problems
a) Technocratic approach Today, when a swarm of the most serious problems of the world scale required an urgent solution, many scientific minds asked themselves this problem. In con
The main types of international subject specialization of production
The productive forces become worldwide as a result of international specialization and cooperation of production, manifested on a planetary scale. Driven by specialization
Natural resources of Europe
European countries (without countries former USSR) occupy an area equal to 487 million hectares, but there are more than 30 states with a population of almost 500 million people on it. European countries the whole
Natural resources of Asia
The countries of Asia and the Middle East are different in their socio-economic development and in the degree of development and rational use of natural resources. One of them is developing
Natural resources of North America
There are three states in North America: USA, Canada, Mexico. The knowledge and development of the natural resources of the countries of North America is very uneven. T
forest resources
The role of forests in the natural complex and economic activities is difficult to overestimate. Over the past 20-25 years, the state of forest resources has been continuously deteriorating, and the situation with l
Integration concepts
American economists distinguish four main forms of economic integration. 1. Free trade area (FTA). Between participating countries
European Union
The European Union is the most advanced grouping in the world in terms of forms of economic integration. The starting point for the formation of the EU is considered to be the signing
MERCOSUR
Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay began the process of integration somewhat earlier than NAFTA and have made significant economic and political progress to date.
Interstate economic integration in the Asia-Pacific region
Since the 80s of the XX century. The Asia-Pacific region (APR) attracts great attention of specialists as the zone of the most dynamic economic growth. Outpacing other regs
World market and international trade
The need for the emergence and development of a system of relations for the international exchange of goods and services is due to many reasons. One of them is that practically no country has
Foreign trade concepts
Mercantilism Mercantilists, representing the interests of the merchant bourgeoisie during the period of the decay of feudalism and the formation of capitalism (XV-XVIII centuries), highly appreciated the role of foreign trade.
Customs and tariff regulation of foreign trade activities
Public administration foreign economic activity covers measures of a control and regulatory financial and stimulating nature. At the heart of the customs-tariff method lies
Economic consequences of the application of customs duties
We use the analysis of supply and demand to study the economic consequences of the application of customs duties.
Non-tariff methods of regulation of international trade
As a result of multilateral negotiations, a reduction in tariff barriers has been achieved. From 1948, when the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade came into force, to the present
International regulation of foreign trade
The regulation of foreign trade is carried out: by the economic policy of the country; according to bilateral agreements of states; within the framework of regional soy
Reasons for international labor migration
Mass migration of the population has become one of the characteristic phenomena of the life of the world community in the second half of the 20th century. Population migration is the movement of people across borders
Waves of international labor migration and their main features
In the middle of the XIX century. the most significant event in history modern migration population. In the 40s. 19th century there was an explosion of emigration from Ireland to the United States due to the "potato famine".
Directions of migration
The directions of migration flows are relatively stable, and they often intersect. Of decisive importance are the economic capabilities of the host country, its weight in modern
Modern centers of attraction for the labor force
The two traditional centers of gravity for the labor force are the US and Western Europe. As for the United States, the labor resources of this country have historically been formed at the expense of immigrants. In the 50s.
State regulation of labor migration
The processes of international labor migration are regulated both by the state and by international legal acts. The regulation of this process is based on two opposite tendencies.
Russia in the international labor market
The entry of Russia as an equal partner in the world economic community is inevitably connected, among other factors, with such a multifaceted process as international migration
International migration of capital
The international migration of capital can be carried out in different forms, which are distinguished according to various signs. Separate the state and private export of capital. capital can move between
Features of the world capital market
The features of the world capital market in recent decades are: a) new directions for the export of capital; b) new subjects of export and import
State assistance programs
State export of capital can be carried out in the form of portfolio investments, but more often in the form of soft loans or the provision of gratuitous financial assistance to other countries
The loan capital market and the global debt crisis
The international movement of capital in many ways resembles international trade. The development of the world capital market, like trade, contributes to a more efficient use of resources
The concept of the exchange rate
In the analysis of international trade, for simplicity, we abstracted from money using relative prices, that is, we expressed the cost of a unit of one product in a certain amount
Characteristics of the world currency market
In a market economy, exchange rates, like any other commodity prices, are determined by the interaction of economic agents buying and selling currency. The totality of relationships
Fixed and floating exchange rates
An important participant in the foreign exchange market is the state represented by the Central Bank or the Ministry of Finance. At the same time, the state can not only carry out foreign exchange interventions, but
Hedging and speculation
Constant changes in exchange rates create a situation of risk in the foreign exchange market. The reaction of individual economic agents to exchange rate fluctuations is not the same. Some do not want
International loan capital market. Eurocurrency market and euromarket of capitals
International credit and financial relations cover the system of relations associated with the movement of loan capital in the world credit and financial markets. World market of loan caps
New international financial instruments
Foreign and domestic practice divides financial markets into: primary, i.e. market of transactions with real goods; secondary - "paper" market, i.e. market
Emerging financial markets in the IEO system
The term "emerging markets" is usually used in relation to stock markets. It was put into circulation by the experts of the International Finance Corporation (IFC
Payment balance. Balance of payments items
The movement of goods and services across national borders is, as it were, balanced by the movement in the opposite direction of financial flows (cash), which are payments for goods and services.
double counting principle
In accordance with accepted practice, the balance of payments is compiled on the principle of double counting. The latter lies in the fact that each transaction is recorded simultaneously on two accounts: debit, svi
Types of balance of payments
The resulting equilibrium does not mean that there is an imbalance in certain groups of articles. Much depends on where the balancing middle line will be drawn, since in the general calculation of the accounting
Theories of balance of payments
The variety of types of balances, depending on the analyzed foreign economic activity, is also reflected in the theory. Each of the theories, giving its own interpretation of the interstate system
Keynesian theory of the balance of payments
In this theory, as an integral element of the general Keynesian doctrine, the following indicators are used: aggregated expenditures (D) - total expenditures that all national
Monetarist theory of balance of payments
The idea of monetarism is to ensure, in the process of activity of individual individuals and legal entities, fixed ratios between three parameters: a) the amount of available monetary funds
Disproportions in the balance of payments
The three main sections of the balance of payments, as noted earlier, are the following: current operations, capital movements and official reserves. Sum of current opera balances
Price changes, price imbalances
For the most part, they are associated with an increase in inflationary costs, an increase in the cost of production factors (labor, capital, land). Entrepreneurs refuse to raise wages
The impact of macroeconomic indicators on the balance of payments.
Almost all macroeconomic indicators affect the balance of payments. A detailed list of them would take up a lot of space, so let's focus on the most significant ones used.
national income
As noted earlier, national income is understood as the total amount of wages, dividends, interest and rent that residents of this article earn (receive).
Interest rate level
The value of interest rates determines the terms of the loan. If interest rates are high, then the conditions for granting a loan are "tough"; if interest rates are low, then they are "free" ("whether
The value and volume of money emission
Another important indicator that determines the level of supply and demand in the foreign exchange market is the amount of money emission in the domestic market. Increase in emission or monetary
Main forms of technology transfer
International technological exchange in the economic literature is interpreted in a broad and narrow sense. In a broad sense, this term means the exchange of any scientific and technical knowledge, etc.
Russia in the system of international technology exchange
In the 21st century the place and role of Russia in the world economy and international relations will be largely determined by the level of its scientific and technological development, the ability to create and effectively
The concept of "developing countries" is rather conditional and unites 4/5 of all countries in the world. They are home to over 80% of the world's population. It is possible to single out the following signs, according to which developing countries (DCs) are united into a special group of states:
─ these are former colonial countries dependent on the West;
─ the economic system of these countries is characterized by extreme instability;
─ they significantly depend on the economies of developed countries;
─ the economy is multistructural with various forms of ownership;
─ high population growth rates;
─ specialization in raw materials supplied to the world market;
─ strong dependence on the inflow of foreign capital.
The commonality and, at the same time, the diversity of developing countries complicates attempts to classify them.
For specific analysis, developing countries can be divided into the following subgroups:
─ energy exporting countries with an active balance of payments. These are Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, UAE, Saudi Arabia.
─ countries that are net exporters of energy resources, but with a constant passive balance of payments. These are countries such as Algeria, Bolivia, Venezuela, Gabon, Egypt, Cameroon, Congo, Nigeria, Peru, etc.
─ Newly industrialized countries. These are countries that have achieved high growth rates.
─ countries of the so-called fourth world. These are the most backward states (there are about 60 of them).
Considering the constant growth in the number of developing countries and their huge share in the world's population, they have the opportunity to actively influence world economic relations. These include almost all Asian countries, except for Japan and Israel, as well as (according to OECD experts) all African states, with the exception of South Africa and the countries of Latin America.
One of the main features of the socio-economic development model of the RS is their underdevelopment. The low level of development of productive forces is a feature that determines all other features of the RS. This is expressed, first of all, in their low share in the volume of the GMP (80% of the world's population accounts for 20% of the GMP). Therefore, the main problem for the RS is to overcome backwardness and improve living standards.
The solution of problems by the national governments of the RS is associated with the implementation of industrialization, which makes it possible to carry out structural transformations and technical re-equipment of the economy. At the same time, they follow the trajectory of catching up development. Such development does not imply rapprochement with the leaders of world development. It is considered catching up because it follows the path laid by technogenic civilization. Developed countries are paving the way, forcing RS to be guided by their standards and follow the "rules of the game". This requires similar social institutions and economic mechanisms. But reproducing them in an environment alien to them is not easy. The formation of original analogues is associated with revolutionary transformations.
The results of the development of MS over 100 years (from 1886 to 2000) do not cause much optimism:
─ per capita GDP in the RS has not changed relative to developed countries;
─ The acceleration of the economic growth of the RS increased the unevenness of their development.
RS attempts to overcome backwardness found expression in the formulation of two models of development.
Model of import-substituting industrialization assumed the growth of industry under the protection of high tariffs on imports. This model made it possible to develop national entrepreneurship through the development of internal resources.
This approach to development, although it increased the growth rate (up to 6% per year), did not improve the social situation of the majority of the population in the RS.
The following disadvantages of this development model can be identified:
─ the growth in the production of consumer goods necessitated an increase in the import of capital goods and the dependence of the RS on developed countries increased; increased loans and debts;
─ low effective demand did not allow loading the created production capacities;
─ export earnings did not keep pace with the growth in import needs;
─ the need of developed countries for raw materials, agricultural products supplied by RS is decreasing due to the displacement of natural raw materials by synthetic ones;
─ enterprises created in the RS were often inefficient, and low quality products were produced;
─ insufficient integration into the MX made the RS vulnerable during periods of commodity crises;
─ exorbitant, often incorrect intervention of the state in economic processes, bureaucratic obstacles, craving for the redistribution of resources;
─ the state supported unprofitable state-owned enterprises at the expense of budgetary funds;
─ the growth of an inefficient administrative and managerial apparatus;
─ Shortage of foreign exchange and large domestic debt necessitated a reduction in imports, which led to increased underutilization of production capacities, increased unemployment and inflation.
Model of export-oriented industrialization. Based on the openness of the economy, active participation in the MRI use of world trade. This model has been successfully applied in Southeast Asian countries (Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea). These countries, not having rich natural resources, have relied on the export of finished products, using cheap labor. Exports went first to neighboring countries, gained experience and currency, and then went to the world market. In many ways, Japan contributed to the implementation of this development model. Through investments, new technologies, developments in management and marketing, it attached these countries to modern production. This way of development turned out to be more effective.
Modernization of the agricultural economy – the first serious test of strength in the struggle for the development of the former colonial and dependent countries. Agriculture formed the basis of the development of these countries. It created most of the GDP, but it grew at the beginning of the 20th century only 0.2% faster than the population. Such growth rates are observed, for example, in Tropical Africa, but in the 60s of the XX century, after independence, per capita production began to fall here, because. the total population in the region increased (4 times in 1951-2000).
In most developing countries, land reforms have not been completed. The reason was either insufficient scope, or the allocation of land to farms was slow. Therefore, the modernization of agriculture, as a rule, was reduced to the use of means of production provided by industry (new varieties, fertilizers).
Radical land reform was carried out only in South Korea and Taiwan, and these countries in the 60s became leaders in terms of growth in agricultural production. In Malaysia and Thailand, the situation in agriculture was also relatively favorable, which affected the pace of industrialization. Quite a simple and effective agrarian reform was carried out in China.
As a result of the reform, the share of developing countries in world production from 1951 to 2000. increased by almost 1/3 and reached 68.3% of the total, but the process was extremely uneven.
Industrialization former generations and semi-colonies began after their inclusion in the MRI. The main role was played by external factors - the need of developed countries for raw materials, the need to adapt to the requirements of the world market.
Industrialization relied on technologies already developed by developed countries, therefore, it had the following features:
─ faster transition from one technical and technological stage to another;
─ developed countries began to transfer part of their industry to the RS;
─ higher rates of industrial production compared to developed countries. From 1951 to 2000, industrial production increased by more than 16 times.
By 2000, RS produced 60% of the total industrial output in the world.
In the next 20 years, the gap between developed countries and the RS in terms of output in heavy industry has decreased by almost 3 times. The gap in this indicator has also been reduced in the woodworking, pulp and paper industry and in mechanical engineering.
Despite the great success in industrialization, the RS still lag behind the developed countries for a whole era. In terms of production per capita, they are inferior to the developed ones - 6-7 times in the manufacture of industrial products.
In the last half century, the uneven development of MS has increased, especially in terms of growth. After the oil crisis of 1971-1975. RS were divided into several groups. Large incomes for oil-producing countries have weakened the incentives for social change. For the leading OPEC countries with their small population oil revenues will be enough to maintain an adequate standard of living. The less wealthy oil-exporting countries, by slowing down industrialization, caused inflation and external debt to rise.
Oil-importing countries were divided into two subgroups according to the degree of adaptation to the conditions that changed after the crisis. The first subgroup is better integrated into world economy than the second one.
The countries best avoided shocks were South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Mauritius. They managed to connect to promising international industrial complexes specializing in the production of durable goods. At first, they carried out the assembly and manufacture of finishing components for products manufactured by TNCs. Later, on this basis, viable industrial complexes arose in these countries. The creation of such complexes went in two ways:
─ with the support of the state, large diversified production facilities aimed at export were actively formed (South Korea);
─ worldwide development of competition in the domestic market, encouraging the enterprise to produce for export (Taiwan).
In the 80s of the XX century. the example of these countries was followed by China, Malaysia, Thailand, India, Argentina, Brazil.
The bulk of the countries dependent on imports were forced to curtail it, thereby reducing purchases of equipment and components. Production volumes began to fall, and the economy of these countries began to stagnate and industrialization stalled.
The process of stratification of the countries did not prevent the increase in the share of their manufacturing industry in the total GDP of the RS by almost 2 times. Only 10 countries had a more significant share of industry in GDP - China, Malaysia, Thailand, Taiwan, South Korea, Indonesia, Egypt, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa. Moreover, in half of them, the contribution of the manufacturing industry to economic growth did not increase.
The role of the state in most developing countries is high, because the public sector provides approximately 11% of GDP. The state is forced to attract foreign investment in a special economy and invest money, primarily in infrastructure and industry. The state limited the development of private entrepreneurship, not allowing it into such areas as defense and other strategically important industries.
Since the 1950s, the scale of state ownership has been gradually reduced due to the insufficient efficiency of state enterprises. Growing in many countries the deficit of the state budget. Privatization affected, first of all, the energy industries and telecommunications. Large sales of state property were held in Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Indonesia, Peru. However, due to weak local capital, revenues were lower than expected.
Low GDP growth rates, low per capita income made it necessary in the 80s of the XX century. develop and implement structural adaptation programs. The state is trying to fight poverty through the efficiency of the public sector. The essence of the programs was to limit social spending in the state budget, the establishment of a strict financial policy aimed at combating the state budget deficit. Such programs were carried out in Bulgaria, Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, Chile. However, the capital went to the stock markets, because. local investors did not trust the state. Exports did not grow in the volume needed to boost the economy due to a weak technical base, and countries had to resort to external borrowing.
Social status of the MS population has improved somewhat over the past 50 years. Life expectancy increased in the countries of tropical Africa in the 1990s to 52 years, in South Asia to 62, Southeast Asia to 68, and Latin America to 70 years. But beggarly standard of living the vast majority of the population remains a characteristic feature of MS. The exact dimensions of poverty are difficult to calculate due to the lack of statistical data. In RS, approximately 1/3 of the population has a daily income of no more than one dollar. The main incomes are concentrated in the hands of the local elite. The 40% of the poorest population account for no more than 3-37% of income.
According to export estimates, the unemployed and underemployed in these countries make up from 25 to 38% of the economically active population. Mass poverty, the poverty of the population limit effective demand.
Social problems are largely predetermined by a high level of population growth (1.9% per year versus 0.7% in developed countries).
Agrarian reforms led to the release of the labor force, the weak manufacturing industry did not absorb it, the service sector is also underdeveloped, so unemployment and poverty are growing.
