On this topic
"COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPAN AND CHINA" (2 hours)
Lesson objectives: Formation of subject-analytical and self-educational competencies in the study of the countries of Japan and China.
Educational tasks: study of new material by comparison and analysis.
Developing tasks: Formation of the skill of self-education and discussion culture.
Educational tasks: Formation of a respectful attitude towards people with a different culture and customs.
Hello guys! Today we have an unusual lesson. Today we are going to get acquainted with two very peculiar states of Asia - Japan and China.
Look at the topic of the lesson (slide 1) - what lesson objectives can you formulate?
Goals (slide To study the features of two countries - Japan and China.
We can achieve the goals of the lesson by working with various sources of information: maps, statistical data, a textbook, additional materials. The result of our work should be completed lesson cards and, of course, your new knowledge and skills on this topic. Let's start!
General information about the country (slide 3,4)
1. Determination of the economic and geographical position of countries. (according to the plan on the desks) - work with cards.
Guys, we work in groups (Japan and China), we write down the results in the table of the technological map and announce them one by one.
Plan CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE COUNTRY (in the table)
Each batch one item
1. Determine the position of the country on the world map (which subregion it belongs to).
2. Assess the political and geographical position: with which countries it borders, what is the level of economic development of neighboring countries, are there hotbeds of international conflicts on the country's borders, are the country's borders convenient for foreign economic trade relations.
3. Assess the position of the country in relation to the world's transport routes.
4. Make a conclusion about the favorable or unfavorable position of the country for its economic development.
What is the peculiarity of the geographical position of Japan? (1. island position, 2. absence land borders with neighboring countries maritime border with Russia, 4. located in the center of the Asia-Pacific region) - we hear additions
What is the peculiarity of the geographical position of China (2. Many neighboring countries, many hard-to-reach sections of the borders, the border with Russia), - we hear additions
2. Population(slide 5.6)
Guys, what do you already know about the population of these countries? Determine their place in the world using textbook data (p. 66, tab. 10 - analysis of 10 countries in the world by population) in table.
Let's think about the type of reproduction in these countries, its modern features; ( listening to additions Japan, China) in table.
What are the features of the sexual (China- we hear additions) and age (Japan- we hear additions) composition of the population? Determine the national composition of the population according to the atlas (p. 6); major religions; ( we hear additions) (slide 7)
Analyze maps of world population density (atlas p. 4) and determine the distribution of the population, big cities(slide 8). In table.we hear additions
* teacher's additions - Megalopolis Tokaido - Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka 40% of the population
Noted the similarities and differences in the table of the technological map
3. Natural resources
The nature of these countries is peculiar: Japan is a country of mountains (slide 9), and in China, the highest mountains of the world coexist with great plains. (slide 10)
What else natural resources countries stand out? Each group studies their country on the map of the atlas "Extractive industry of the world" p. 14, tables 3,4,5,6 on pages 356-359 in the textbook.
* teacher's additions - Chinese export products supplied to the USA, Europe, Japan have high quality standards. It is produced in large coastal cities of China at modern enterprises. And in the northern and inland regions there are numerous artisanal enterprises that produce low-quality and cheap products for sale in Russia, the CIS countries and Eastern Europe.
Noted the similarities and differences in the table of the technological map
5. Agriculture
What natural conditions contribute to the development of agriculture in Japan? - What natural features impede its development? we hear additions
A feature of Japan's agriculture is the analysis of atlas maps; What crops are grown in Japan? (slide 17) What else is included in the traditional diet of the Japanese? mariculture - listening to additionsentries in the table.
* teacher's additions - Changes in the diet of the Japanese in recent years, the consequences.
A feature of China's agriculture - map analysis - What agricultural areas can be distinguished on the territory of China? (* Yellow and green China) - In the production of which agricultural crops is China leading (textbook p. entries in the table.(slide 18)
Noted the similarities and differences in the table of the technological map
6. Transport
Based on the peculiarities of the EGP of Japan, think about which types of transport have received the most development in this country? – work with the text of the textbook p. 236, entries in the table.(slide 19) we hear additions
* teacher's additions - Show on the map where the Shinkansen takes place
What modes of transport are most developed in China? - Work with the text of the textbook p.243, as posted transport routes in China - map analysis, entries in the table.
Noted the similarities and differences in the table of the technological map
7. Economic regions
– Based on the analysis of the atlas maps, determine whether there are differences in the territorial structure of the economy within countries? What economic regions can be distinguished in Japan and China? - work with the text of the textbook pp. 237, 243. (General - the eastern Pacific part of the country is more developed), entries in the table.
Noted the similarities and differences in the table of the technological map
8. Culture
Japan and China are countries with an ancient and original culture. (slide 20, 21) (slide 22,23)
* additions of the teacher and students about the features of Japanese and Chinese culture
9. Conclusion on the level and prospects for the development of countries
Determine the volume (p. 111, .GDP per capita (p. 111) and the structure of the GDP of Japan and China (p. 233, 238)
What type of economy are the Japanese economy and the Chinese economy? (Page 99, Fig. 41)
Guys, during two lessons you studied and compared Japan and China. What do these two countries have more - similarities or differences? - listen to different opinions, write down mine conclusion.
At the end of the lesson, let's see if you can put what you learned into practice. Test yourself with the quizzes in the second part of your roadmaps.
Self-examination and mutual examination of knowledge
10.Conclusion(slide 24)
Guys, let's sum up our lesson.
The purpose of the lesson was:
1. Study the features of two countries - Japan and China.
2. Compare and find similarities and differences between Japan and China.
Do you think we have achieved our goals? Is there anything left unexplored? Do we have something to strive for?
What conclusion can we draw at the end of the lesson?
Your homework will be in two parts. The first is to study paragraphs 41 and 42. The second is to complete the technological map of the lesson. If you did well in class, then your homework gets smaller.
Thanks everyone for the lesson!
I. Economic and geographical position….….…………2
Russian-Japanese relations……………………………10
VIII. Application……………………………………………..13
Economic and geographical position.
In terms of territory, Japan is 378 thousand km 2 Japan is an archipelago country located on four large (Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku) and almost 6 thousand small islands. Length coastline is almost 30 thousand km. The shores are strongly indented and form many bays and coves.
Japan is separated from the mainland by the East China, Japan and Okhotsk seas. From the east and southeast the country is washed by waters Pacific Ocean. Between the islands of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu lies the Inland Sea of Japan.
The seas and oceans washing Japan are of great importance for the country as a source of biological, mineral and energy resources. Communication between Japan and other countries of the world is carried out by sea.
The position of Japan at the junction of the Eurasian continent and the Pacific Ocean, located in the center of the Asia-Pacific region, opens up great opportunities for the country's participation in the international division of labor.
Japan is a mountainous country (75% of the territory). To expand the living space, the water area adjacent to the land is used: residential and industrial zones are located on artificial peninsulas and islands created by filling in shallow waters. The main part of the country's population lives on the coastal plains (mainly along the Pacific coast of the islands).
High seismicity and volcanism have a significant impact on economic development. Every year in Japan there are about 1.5 thousand earthquakes of various strengths. The islands have 15 active volcanoes, and dozens more may awaken. Japan's highest peak is Mount Fuji (3776 m). Seaquakes and the tsunami waves they cause are associated with the eruption of underwater volcanoes, causing great damage to the economy (mainly Honshu and Hokkaido). However, life on the islands cannot be called idyllic. During the year, up to 1700 mm of precipitation falls here - more than in rainy Great Britain. To this we must add typhoons and tropical showers, tsunamis and earthquakes, which are frequent guests here. And only the amazing resilience and diligence of the Japanese people allow the country not only to withstand the elements of nature, but also to flourish.
The climate of Japan as a whole is quite favorable for human habitation and farming. Hokkaido and northern Honshu are located in the temperate maritime climate zone, the rest of Honshu, the islands of Shikoku and Kyushu are in the humid subtropical climate, and the Ryukyu Islands (including Okinawa) are in the tropical climate zone.
The most important factor shaping the climate is the monsoons, accompanied by typhoons and showers in summer, and snowfalls in winter. The warm ocean current Kuroshio has a softening effect. Due to the climatic conditions in the southern subtropical and tropical regions, two crops per year can be harvested.
In recent years, Japan has escalated land problem(land quality is deteriorating). There are mainly slightly podzolic and peaty soils, as well as brown forest and red soils, suitable for growing many crops (from potatoes in the north to sugarcane in the south). Cultivated land makes up 13% of the area, meadows and pastures - 4%.
Japan is currently a constitutional monarchy (i.e. an empire). The highest body of state power and the highest legislative body is the Parliament, which consists of two chambers: the House of Representatives (512 deputies) and the Chamber of Councilors (252 deputies). The term of office of the deputies of the House of Representatives is 4 years, the term of the House of Councilors is 6 years (with re-election of half of the composition every 3 years). Parliament performs an important role - it adopts the budget, ratifies international treaties and agreements, makes proposals for amendments to the Constitution.
Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. The main religions are Shintoism and Buddhism. Currency unit– 1 yen = 10 senam.
Natural resources.
Japan is poor in minerals. Linking to external sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods has become the main reason the country's active foreign policy.
Over 2/3 of the territory of Japan is occupied by forests and shrubs; a significant part of the forests, over 1/3 - artificial plantations. Coniferous species account for 50% of the total timber resources and 37% of the total forest area. In total, the flora of Japan has about 300 species of herbs and over 700 species of trees and shrubs.
The rivers of Japan are numerous, but short. The largest of them is the Sinako River (367 km). Most of the rivers are wild mountain streams, sources of hydroelectric power and water for irrigation. The rivers are unsuitable for navigation. There are two types of lakes in Japan: deep mountain lakes and shallow lakes located on the coastal lowlands. The abundance of rivers, lakes, underground waters, which Japan has generously awarded, has a beneficial effect on the development of agriculture and industry. The industrial development of the country caused serious problems with environmental pollution, which led to the development of a program for improving the control of the state of nature.
Recently, in Japan, special attention has been paid to the development recreational resources. Issues of culture and aesthetics of the landscape, ornamental gardening, the creation of parks and reserves, the protection of ancient monuments have entered the life of the Japanese people for a long time. Now in Japan there are about 25 national parks. Tourism development comes at a cost, and there is now concern about significant damage to the natural environment. Therefore, ways are developed best use sights of nature, while protecting and preserving it.
Population.
In terms of population (more than 135 million people), Japan is among the top ten countries in the world. However, over the past decade, the nature of the natural movement of the population has changed dramatically. Japan became the first Asian state to switch from the second to the first type of its reproduction. According to the forecasts of Japanese demographers, the population will stabilize by 2010 at the level of 130 million people. A major problem for Japan has been the rapid increase in the proportion of people over the age of 65. Life expectancy in this country is the highest in the world (76 years for men, 82 years for women). The population of Japan is distinguished by national homogeneity (more than 95% are Japanese). Of the other nationalities, the number of living Koreans and Chinese is significant.
The Japanese language is very specific and does not belong to any of the language families. The system of Japanese writing is also very complex, in which both hieroglyphs and the dictionary alphabet are used.
The population is distributed unevenly throughout the territory. With a high average density (more than 330 million people per 1 km 2), some areas, according to this indicator, are the most densely populated areas of the world (these are the coastal regions of the Pacific coast, where 2/3 of the country's population lives).
Almost 4/5 of Japan's population are city dwellers. 11 cities have a population of over 1 million people. The largest urban agglomeration is Kehin (Tokyo-Yokohama), where more than 25 million people are concentrated in 150 settlements. Together with the other two largest agglomerations of Hanshin (Osako - Kobe - Kito) and Chuke (Nagoya, etc.), as well as with the cities located between them, the Keihin agglomeration merges into a single system - the Tokyo metropolis (Tokaido). Its total population is over 60 million people.
The metropolis of Tokaido stretches along the coast for 600-700 km. The average population density within it is 800 - 1000 people. per 1 km 2. The proximity of the sea and the winding coastline create favorable conditions for the development of maritime transport and the construction of ports.
Peripheral centers are also growing rapidly - Sapporo, Sendai. And outside the metropolis, another agglomeration has formed - Chinakyushu-Fukuoka (in the north of Kyushu).
Industry.
In recent decades, Japan has emerged as one of the leading economic powers and is the second largest national economic power in the world. The population of Japan is approximately 2.3% of the world's population, but creates about 16% of the gross world product (GMP) calculated at current exchange rates, and 7.7% in terms of the purchasing power of the yen. Its economic potential is equal to 61% of the US, but in terms of production per capita, it exceeds the US level. Japan accounts for 70% of the total product East Asia, its gross domestic product(GDP), calculated on the basis of current exchange rates, is four times the GDP of China. It has achieved high technical excellence, especially in certain areas. advanced technologies. The current position of Japan in the world economy is the result of its economic development in the second half of the last century. In 1938, it accounted for only 3% of the VMP.
Black and non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical and food industries are developed in Japan. Although Japan is the largest importer of raw materials for most of these industries, nevertheless, the country often ranks 1-2 in the world in the output of many industries. Moreover, industry is concentrated mainly within the Pacific industrial belt (almost 80% of industrial products are produced in 13% of the country's territory).
The industry of Japan at first developed mainly along an evolutionary path. On imported raw materials, such basic industries as energy, metallurgy, automobile and shipbuilding, chemical and petrochemical, and construction industries were practically recreated. After the energy and raw material crises of the mid-1970s, the revolutionary path of development began to prevail in industry. The country began to increasingly limit the growth of energy-intensive and metal-intensive industries that depend on imported fuel and raw materials and to focus on the latest high-tech industries. She became a leader in the field of electronics, biotechnology, and began to use non-traditional energy sources.
II. Metallurgy has undergone significant changes in recent years. Instead of many outdated factories, powerful plants equipped with the latest technology have been built. Lacking its own raw material base, Japan focuses on the import of iron ore and coking coal. Malaysia and Canada have been and remain major suppliers of iron ore. The main suppliers of coal are the USA, Australia; to a lesser extent, India and Canada. Japan is the world's second largest producer of refined copper, after the United States. Deposits of polymetallic ores form the basis for the development of zinc and lead production.
III. Energy Japan focuses mainly on imported raw materials (mainly oil and oil products). Oil imports amount to more than 200 million tons (own production of 0.5 million tons in 1997). The share of coal in consumption is decreasing, the share of natural gas in consumption is growing (it is imported in a reduced form). The role of hydropower and nuclear energy is growing. Japan has a powerful electric power industry. Over 60% of the capacity falls on thermal power plants (the largest of 4 million kW). A nuclear power plant has been under construction since the mid-1960s. Currently, more than 20 nuclear power plants operate on imported raw materials (more than 40 power units). They provide about 30% of electricity. The country has built the most powerful nuclear power plants in the world (including Fukushima - 10 power units).
VI. mechanical engineering Japan includes many industries (shipbuilding, automotive, general engineering, instrumentation, radio electronics, aerospace industry). There are a number of large factories of heavy engineering, machine-tool building, production of equipment for the light and food industries. But the main industries were electronics, the radio industry and transport engineering.
1) By car production(13 million pieces per year) in recent years, Japan also ranks first in the world (the industry's products account for 20% of Japanese exports). The most important centers of the industry are Toyota (Nagasaki region), Yokohama, Hiroshima.
2) Main enterprises general engineering located within the Pacific industrial belt: in the Tokyo region - complex machine tool building, industrial robots; in Osaka - metal-intensive equipment (near the centers of ferrous metallurgy); in the Nagoya region - machine tool building, production of equipment for other industries.
3) Enterprises radio electronic and electrical industry they are guided by centers with a skilled workforce, with a well-developed transport system, with a developed scientific and technical base. In the early 90s, Japan accounted for over 60% of the production of industrial robots, ½ of CNC machines and pure ceramic products, from 60 to 90% of the production of certain types of microprocessors in the world. Japan maintains a leading position in the production of consumer electronics and electronic equipment. The share of the country in the world production of color TV sets (taking into account the production at foreign enterprises of Japanese companies is more than 60%, video recorders - 90%, etc.). The products of science-intensive industries account for about 15% of the total industrial production in Japan. And in general, for engineering products - about 40%.
4) Enterprises oil refining, and chemical industry gravitate towards the main centers of the Pacific industrial belt - in the Tokyo agglomeration of the Alan industrial belt. In the Tokyo agglomeration (Kawasaki, Chiba, Yokohama), in the Osaka and Nagoya regions, enterprises use imported raw materials. In terms of the level of development of the chemical industry, Japan occupies one of the first places in the world.
5) In Japan, it is also developed pulp and paper industry.
6) Keeps the importance of the industry light and food industry. However, competition from developing countries is growing in many types of labor-intensive light industry (due to the cheapness of labor in other countries).
VI. Another important traditional branch of Japanese industry is fishing. In terms of fish catch, Japan occupies one of the first places in the world. There are more than 3 thousand fishing ports in the country. The rich and diverse fauna of the coastal seas contributed to the development of not only fishing, but also Mari culture. Fish and seafood occupy a very large place in the diet of the Japanese. Pearl fishing is also developed.
Very important feature industry of Japan is its exceptionally strong involvement in international economic relations.
Agriculture.
Japan's agriculture employs about 3% of the economically active population, and its share in the country's GNP is about 2%. Japanese agriculture is characterized by a high level of labor and land productivity, crop yields and animal productivity.
Agricultural production has a pronounced food orientation
Plant growing provides the main part of the production (about 70%), but its share is decreasing. The country has to import fodder and industrial crops from abroad. Pasture land makes up only 1.6% of total area. But even these plots are getting out of agricultural circulation as imports of cheap meat and dairy products increase. New intensive branches of animal husbandry are developing. Cultivated land accounts for 13% of the country's territory. However, in some areas of Japan, you can get 2-3 crops per year, so the sown area is larger than the cultivated area. Despite the fact that cultivated lands occupy a small share in the land fund, and their per capita value is very small (24 times less than the USA, 9 times less than France), Japan provides its food needs mainly due to own production (about 70%). The demand for rice, vegetables, poultry meat, pork, fruits is practically satisfied. However, the country is forced to import sugar, corn, cotton and wool.
Japanese agriculture is characterized by small-scale farming. Most of the farms are small-scale. The largest farms are engaged in animal husbandry. In addition to individual farms, there are firms and productive cooperatives. These are significant agricultural units.
The coastal lowlands of all the islands, including those in the Pacific industrial belt, are large agricultural areas where rice, vegetables, tea, tobacco are grown, and animal husbandry is also intensively developed. On all large plains and in natural areas of large agglomerations there are poultry and pig farms, vegetable gardens.
Transport.
In Japan, all types of transport have been developed, with the exception of river and pipeline transport. By its nature transport network this country resembles countries Western Europe, but in terms of the size of the transportation of goods and especially passengers, it far exceeds any of them. And in terms of the density of passenger rail traffic, it ranks first in the world. Japan also has a very large and most modern merchant marine.
Foreign economic relations.
Japan is one of the world's largest trading powers. The economy is very dependent on imported fuel and industrial raw materials. But the structure of imports is changing significantly: the share of raw materials is decreasing and the share of finished products is increasing. The share of finished products from the NIS of Asia is especially growing (including color TVs, video cassettes, video recorders, spare parts). The country also imports some types of the latest machinery and equipment from economically developed countries.
In the export of finished industrial products (by value), 64% falls on machinery and equipment. Japan's international specialization in the world market is the trade in products of science-intensive high-tech industries, such as the production of ultra-large integrated circuits and microprocessors, CNC machine tools and industrial robots.
The volume of Japan's foreign trade is constantly growing (760 billion dollars, 1997 - the third place after the USA and Germany). Japan's main trading partners are economically the developed countries, primarily the USA (30% of exports, 25% of imports), Germany, Australia, Canada. Major partners are the Republic of Korea and China.
Increasing trade with countries South-East Asia(29% of external turnover) and Europe. The largest suppliers of oil to Japan are the countries of the Persian Gulf
An important area of Japan's foreign economic activity is capital export. In terms of foreign investment, the country has become one of the leaders along with the United States and Great Britain. Moreover, the share of capital investment in the development of the country is growing. Japan invests its capital in trade, banking, loans and other services (about 50%), in manufacturing and mining different countries peace. Acute foreign economic conflicts between Japan and the United States and the countries of Western Europe lead to a struggle for sources of raw materials, markets and areas for capital investment. The scale of foreign entrepreneurship of Japanese firms is expanding. Moreover, along with the export of environmentally hazardous, energy- and material-intensive industries (by building enterprises in developing countries), there is also a transfer to these countries of some machine-building industries - those whose development in Japan is becoming less respectable (transferred to places where costs are lower). for the labor force).
Japanese firms are especially active in the NIS of Asia - in the Republic of Korea, Taiwan and Singapore. Textile, food, clothing, metallurgical, chemical industries, electronic and precision engineering enterprises created there with the participation of Japanese capital are becoming serious competitors to Japanese firms (especially small and medium ones) in the world and even in the domestic market of Japan.
All major industrial companies in Japan are transnational corporations, one of the largest in the world. In the list of the 500 largest TNCs in the world, very high positions are occupied by: Toyotamotor, Hondamotor - in the automotive industry; Hitachi, Sony, NEC - in electronics; Toshiba, Fujitsu, Canon - in the production of computer equipment, etc.
One of the most important factors in Japan's economic development is its extensive participation in international technology trade. Technology exports are dominated by licenses in the field of electrical and transport engineering, chemistry, and construction. WITH geographic point Japanese technology exports in the 1980s were dominated by developing countries. Particularly active is the exchange of licenses for technological processes in the field of electrical engineering, chemical industry, etc.
Russian-Japanese relations.
Foreign economic relations with Russia have become a new road for cooperation in recent years, where joint ventures with Japanese capital. The geographic location of the joint venture is mainly limited to the Far East region. Japan has become the main trading partner of the Primorsky Territory, the Sakhalin Region, and the Khabarovsk Territory. Oil, coal, non-ferrous metals, timber, cellulose, fish and seafood are exported from Russia.
In general, in the international division of labor, Japan is one of the world financial centers, as well as a manufacturer of products of high-tech industries - "research and production laboratory of the world." It can be expected that by the beginning of the 21st century, Japan will overtake the United States in terms of the degree of involvement in the world economy.
Interesting Facts.
* The Japanese themselves have called their country Nippon (or Nihhon) since ancient times. This name consists of two hieroglyphic characters, one of which means "Sun", and the second - "base". Hence the allegorical name of Japan, as the land of the rising sun. The red sun circle on the Japanese flag and the round chrysanthemum (national flower of the Japanese) on the country's national emblem also symbolize the rising sun.
* Shintoism (from the word “Shinto”, which means “divine way”) caters for the main religious and everyday rituals, and above all wedding ceremonies, which always take place in Shinto temples. Buddhism, on the contrary, takes over all funeral and funeral rites.
* There are about 40 different festivals held in Japan every year. One of them is famous snow festival on the “white” island of Hokkaido, which happens in early February. More than 300 snow structures rise on the main street of Sapporo during the festival days. These are characters from fairy tales, literary heroes, copies of famous landowners and architectural structures.
* The total length of the streets of Tokyo is 22 thousand km., Which is more than half the length of the equator; there are 4 million houses in the city. However, most of the streets do not have names at all. Plates with numbers indicate the number of the district (and there are 23 of them in the city), block, serial numbers of apartments. Find an address in Tokyo even for police, drivers who are famous high quality service, not to mention guests and visitors, is very difficult. Separate parts of the city are interconnected by high-speed car overpasses, but even they hardly provide traffic for 5 million cars.
* Fish and all kinds of other seafood - octopuses, shellfish, large shrimp - the Japanese are more likely to eat raw, less often dried, although in Japanese cuisine there are many ways to cook boiled, baked, fried in a pan or charcoal dishes from these products.
* The total length of the Shinkasen (New Line) highway is about 1,100 km. Trains run along it average speed 200 km/h or more. The movement is especially high on the Tokyo-Osaka section, 515 km long, where up to 120 pairs of trains pass per day, and about 120 million passengers are transported per year, which is equal to the entire population of the country. The distance between these cities express “Hikari” (“Light”) takes 2 hours 15 minutes. At the same time, he overcomes 66 tunnels and 3 thousand bridges.
* The world's largest nuclear power plant in Fukushima, located 200 km. North of Tokyo, in 1998, with the launch of the seventh reactor, it reached a capacity of 8.2 million kW. And the world's largest metallurgical plant in Fukuyama, on the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan, has a capacity of 16 million tons of steel per year.
Application.
Comparison table.
Bibliography.
1. "Economic geography" I.N.Leonov, N.D.Bakhunina.
2. "Geography of the countries of the world" L.N. Pavlenko, I.L. Petrov.
3. "Geography" Maksakovskiy (10-11 classes).
I. Economic and geographical position….….…………2
I. Natural resources….………………………………….3
II. Population....……………………………………………...4
III. Industry…..………………………………………5
IV. Agriculture.……………………………………..8
V. Transport.………………………………………………..9
VI. External economic relations…………………………9
VII. Russian-Japanese relations……………………………10
VIII. Interesting facts……..……………………………….11
IX. Application……………………………………………..13
Economic and geographical position.
In terms of territory, Japan is 378 thousand km 2 Japan is an archipelago country located on four large (Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku) and almost 6 thousand small islands. The length of the coastline is almost 30 thousand km. The shores are strongly indented and form many bays and coves.
Japan is separated from the mainland by the East China, Japan and Okhotsk seas. From the east and southeast, the country is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean. Between the islands of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu lies the Inland Sea of Japan.
The seas and oceans washing Japan are of great importance for the country as a source of biological, mineral and energy resources. Communication between Japan and other countries of the world is carried out by sea.
The position of Japan at the junction of the Eurasian continent and the Pacific Ocean, located in the center of the Asia-Pacific region, opens up great opportunities for the country's participation in the international division of labor.
Japan is a mountainous country (75% of the territory). To expand the living space, the water area adjacent to the land is used: residential and industrial zones are located on artificial peninsulas and islands created by filling in shallow waters. The main part of the country's population lives on the coastal plains (mainly along the Pacific coast of the islands).
High seismicity and volcanism have a significant impact on economic development. Every year in Japan there are about 1.5 thousand earthquakes of various strengths. There are 15 active volcanoes on the islands, and several dozen more may awaken. Japan's highest peak is Mount Fuji (3776 m). The eruption of underwater volcanoes is associated with sea quakes and the tsunami waves they cause, causing great damage to the economy (mainly Honshu and Hokkaido). However, life on the islands cannot be called idyllic. During the year, up to 1700 mm of precipitation falls here - more than in rainy Great Britain. To this we must add typhoons and tropical showers, tsunamis and earthquakes, which are frequent guests here. And only the amazing resilience and diligence of the Japanese people allow the country not only to withstand the elements of nature, but also to flourish.
The climate of Japan as a whole is quite favorable for human habitation and farming. Hokkaido and northern Honshu are located in the temperate maritime climate zone, the rest of Honshu, the islands of Shikoku and Kyushu are in the humid subtropical climate, and the Ryukyu Islands (including Okinawa) are in the tropical climate zone.
The most important factor shaping the climate is the monsoons, accompanied by typhoons and showers in summer, and snowfalls in winter. The warm ocean current Kuroshio has a softening effect. Due to the climatic conditions in the southern subtropical and tropical regions, two crops per year can be harvested.
In recent years, the land problem has become aggravated in Japan (the quality of land is deteriorating). There are mainly slightly podzolic and peaty soils, as well as brown forest and red soils, suitable for growing many crops (from potatoes in the north to sugarcane in the south). Cultivated land makes up 13% of the area, meadows and pastures - 4%.
Japan is currently a constitutional monarchy (i.e. an empire). The highest body of state power and the highest legislative body is the Parliament, which consists of two chambers: the House of Representatives (512 deputies) and the Chamber of Councilors (252 deputies). The term of office of the deputies of the House of Representatives is 4 years, the term of the House of Councilors is 6 years (with re-election of half of the composition every 3 years). Parliament performs an important role - it adopts the budget, ratifies international treaties and agreements, makes proposals for amendments to the Constitution.
Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. The main religions are Shintoism and Buddhism. Monetary unit - 1 yen = 10 senam.
Natural resources.
Japan is poor in minerals. Binding to external sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods has become the most important reason for the country's active foreign policy.
Over 2/3 of the territory of Japan is occupied by forests and shrubs; a significant part of the forests, over 1/3 - artificial plantations. Coniferous species account for 50% of the total timber resources and 37% of the total forest area. In total, the flora of Japan has about 300 species of herbs and over 700 species of trees and shrubs.
The rivers of Japan are numerous, but short. The largest of them is the Sinako River (367 km). Most of the rivers are wild mountain streams, sources of hydroelectric power and water for irrigation. The rivers are unsuitable for navigation. There are two types of lakes in Japan: deep mountain lakes and shallow lakes located on the coastal lowlands. The abundance of rivers, lakes, underground waters, which Japan has generously awarded, has a beneficial effect on the development of agriculture and industry. The industrial development of the country caused serious problems with environmental pollution, which led to the development of a program for improving the control of the state of nature.
Recently, in Japan, special attention has been paid to the development of recreational resources. Issues of culture and aesthetics of the landscape, ornamental gardening, the creation of parks and reserves, the protection of ancient monuments have entered the life of the Japanese people for a long time. Now in Japan there are about 25 national parks. Tourism development comes at a cost, and there is now concern about significant damage to the natural environment. Therefore, ways are being developed to better use the sights of nature, while simultaneously protecting and preserving it.
Population.
In terms of population (more than 135 million people), Japan is among the top ten countries in the world. However, over the past decade, the nature of the natural movement of the population has changed dramatically. Japan became the first Asian state to switch from the second to the first type of its reproduction. According to the forecasts of Japanese demographers, the population will stabilize by 2010 at the level of 130 million people. A major problem for Japan has been the rapid increase in the proportion of people over the age of 65. Life expectancy in this country is the highest in the world (76 years for men, 82 years for women). The population of Japan is distinguished by national homogeneity (more than 95% are Japanese). Of the other nationalities, the number of living Koreans and Chinese is significant.
The Japanese language is very specific and does not belong to any of the language families. The system of Japanese writing is also very complex, in which both hieroglyphs and the dictionary alphabet are used.
The population is distributed unevenly throughout the territory. With a high average density (more than 330 million people per 1 km 2), some areas, according to this indicator, are the most densely populated areas of the world (these are the coastal regions of the Pacific coast, where 2/3 of the country's population lives).
Almost 4/5 of Japan's population are city dwellers. 11 cities have a population of over 1 million people. The largest urban agglomeration is Kehin (Tokyo-Yokohama), where more than 25 million people are concentrated in 150 settlements. Together with the other two largest agglomerations of Hanshin (Osako - Kobe - Kito) and Chuke (Nagoya, etc.), as well as with the cities located between them, the Keihin agglomeration merges into a single system - the Tokyo metropolis (Tokaido). Its total population is over 60 million people.
The metropolis of Tokaido stretches along the coast for 600-700 km. The average population density within it is 800 - 1000 people. per 1 km 2. The proximity of the sea and the winding coastline create favorable conditions for the development of maritime transport and the construction of ports.
Peripheral centers are also growing rapidly - Sapporo, Sendai. And outside the metropolis, another agglomeration has formed - Chinakyushu-Fukuoka (in the north of Kyushu).
Industry.
In recent decades, Japan has emerged as one of the leading economic powers and is the second largest national economic power in the world. The population of Japan is approximately 2.3% of the world's population, but creates about 16% of the gross world product (GMP) calculated at current exchange rates, and 7.7% in terms of the purchasing power of the yen. Its economic potential is equal to 61% of the US, but in terms of production per capita, it exceeds the US level. Japan accounts for 70% of the total product of East Asia, its gross domestic product (GDP), calculated on the basis of current exchange rates, is four times that of China. It has achieved high technical excellence, especially in certain areas of advanced technology. The current position of Japan in the world economy is the result of its economic development in the second half of the last century. In 1938, it accounted for only 3% of the VMP.
Black and non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical and food industries are developed in Japan. Although Japan is the largest importer of raw materials for most of these industries, nevertheless, the country often ranks 1-2 in the world in the output of many industries. Moreover, industry is concentrated mainly within the Pacific industrial belt (almost 80% of industrial products are produced in 13% of the country's territory).
The industry of Japan at first developed mainly along an evolutionary path. On imported raw materials, such basic industries as energy, metallurgy, automobile and shipbuilding, chemical and petrochemical, and construction industries were practically recreated. After the energy and raw material crises of the mid-1970s, the revolutionary path of development began to prevail in industry. The country began to increasingly limit the growth of energy-intensive and metal-intensive industries that depend on imported fuel and raw materials and to focus on the latest high-tech industries. She became a leader in the field of electronics, biotechnology, and began to use non-traditional energy sources.
II. Metallurgy has undergone major changes in recent years. Instead of many outdated factories, powerful plants equipped with the latest technology have been built. Lacking its own raw material base, Japan focuses on the import of iron ore and coking coal. Malaysia and Canada have been and remain major suppliers of iron ore. The main suppliers of coal are the USA, Australia; to a lesser extent, India and Canada. Japan is the world's second largest producer of refined copper, after the United States. Deposits of polymetallic ores form the basis for the development of zinc and lead production.
III. Japan's energy industry is oriented primarily to imported raw materials (mainly oil and oil products). Oil imports amount to more than 200 million tons (own production of 0.5 million tons in 1997). The share of coal in consumption is decreasing, the share of natural gas in consumption is growing (it is imported in a reduced form). The role of hydropower and nuclear energy is growing. Japan has a powerful electric power industry. Over 60% of the capacity falls on thermal power plants (the largest of 4 million kW). A nuclear power plant has been under construction since the mid-1960s. Currently, more than 20 nuclear power plants operate on imported raw materials (more than 40 power units). They provide about 30% of electricity. The country has built the most powerful nuclear power plants in the world (including Fukushima - 10 power units).
IV. Japan's shipbuilding is very diverse: the world's largest supertankers and other ships are leaving the stocks of the shipyards of Yokohama, Osaka, Kobe, Nagasaki and many other shipbuilding centers. Shipbuilding specializes in the construction of large-capacity tankers and bulk carriers. The total tonnage of ships built in Japan is 40% of the world's tonnage. In shipbuilding, the country firmly ranks first in the world (2nd place - the Republic of Korea). Shipbuilding and ship repair enterprises are located throughout the country. The main centers are located in the largest ports (Yokohama, Nagasaki).
V. The production of non-ferrous metals is material and energy intensive. They belong to the “environmentally dirty” industries, therefore, a significant reorganization of the industry has been carried out. In the last decade alone, the smelting of non-ferrous metals has decreased by 20 times. Converting plants are located in almost all major industrial centers.
VI. Mechanical engineering in Japan includes many industries (shipbuilding, automotive, general engineering, instrumentation, radio electronics, aerospace industry). There are a number of large factories of heavy engineering, machine-tool building, production of equipment for the light and food industries. But the main industries were electronics, the radio industry and transport engineering.
1) In recent years, Japan has also ranked first in the world in terms of car production (13 million units per year) (the industry's products account for 20% of Japanese exports). The most important centers of the industry are Toyota (Nagasaki region), Yokohama, Hiroshima.
2) The main enterprises of general engineering are located within the Pacific industrial belt: in the Tokyo region - complex machine tool building, industrial robots; in Osaka - metal-intensive equipment (near the centers of ferrous metallurgy); in the Nagoya region - machine tool building, production of equipment for other industries.
3) Enterprises of the radio-electronic and electrical industry are oriented towards centers with a skilled workforce, a well-developed transport system, and a developed scientific and technical base. In the early 90s, Japan accounted for over 60% of the production of industrial robots, ½ of CNC machines and pure ceramic products, from 60 to 90% of the production of certain types of microprocessors in the world. Japan maintains a leading position in the production of consumer electronics and electronic equipment. The share of the country in the world production of color TV sets (taking into account the production at foreign enterprises of Japanese companies is more than 60%, video recorders - 90%, etc.). The products of science-intensive industries account for about 15% of the total industrial production in Japan. And in general, for engineering products - about 40%.
4) Enterprises of the oil refining, as well as the chemical industry, gravitate towards the main centers of the Pacific industrial belt - in the Tokyo agglomeration of the Alan industrial belt. In the Tokyo agglomeration (Kawasaki, Chiba, Yokohama), in the Osaka and Nagoya regions, enterprises use imported raw materials. In terms of the level of development of the chemical industry, Japan occupies one of the first places in the world.
5) Japan also has a developed pulp and paper industry.
6) It retains no less importance for the light and food industries. However, competition from developing countries is growing in many types of labor-intensive light industry (due to the cheapness of labor in other countries).
VI. Another important traditional branch of Japanese industry is fishing. In terms of fish catch, Japan occupies one of the first places in the world. There are more than 3 thousand fishing ports in the country. The rich and diverse fauna of the coastal seas contributed to the development of not only fishing, but also Mari culture. Fish and seafood occupy a very large place in the diet of the Japanese. Pearl fishing is also developed.
A very important feature of Japan's industry is its exceptionally strong involvement in international economic relations.
Agriculture.
Japan's agriculture employs about 3% of the economically active population, and its share in the country's GNP is about 2%. Japanese agriculture is characterized by a high level of labor and land productivity, crop yields and animal productivity.
Agricultural production has a pronounced food orientation
Plant growing provides the main part of the production (about 70%), but its share is decreasing. The country has to import fodder and industrial crops from abroad. Pasture land makes up only 1.6% of the total area. But even these plots are getting out of agricultural circulation as imports of cheap meat and dairy products increase. New intensive branches of animal husbandry are developing. Cultivated land accounts for 13% of the country's territory. However, in some areas of Japan, you can get 2-3 crops per year, so the sown area is larger than the cultivated area. Despite the fact that cultivated lands occupy a small share in the land fund, and their per capita value is very small (24 times less than the USA, 9 times less than France), Japan provides its food needs mainly due to own production (about 70%). The demand for rice, vegetables, poultry meat, pork, fruits is practically satisfied. However, the country is forced to import sugar, corn, cotton and wool.
Japanese agriculture is characterized by small-scale farming. Most of the farms are small-scale. The largest farms are engaged in animal husbandry. In addition to individual farms, there are firms and productive cooperatives. These are significant agricultural units.
The coastal lowlands of all the islands, including those in the Pacific industrial belt, are large agricultural areas where rice, vegetables, tea, tobacco are grown, and animal husbandry is also intensively developed. On all large plains and in natural areas of large agglomerations there are poultry and pig farms, vegetable gardens.
Transport.
In Japan, all types of transport have been developed, with the exception of river and pipeline transport. By the nature of its transport network, this country resembles the countries of Western Europe, but in terms of the size of the transport of goods and especially passengers, it far exceeds any of them. And in terms of the density of passenger rail traffic, it ranks first in the world. Japan also has a very large and most modern merchant marine.
Foreign economic relations.
Japan is one of the world's largest trading powers. The economy is very dependent on imported fuel and industrial raw materials. But the structure of imports is changing significantly: the share of raw materials is decreasing and the share of finished products is increasing. The share of finished products from the NIS of Asia is especially growing (including color TVs, video cassettes, video recorders, spare parts). The country also imports some types of the latest machinery and equipment from economically developed countries.
In the export of finished industrial products (by value), 64% falls on machinery and equipment. Japan's international specialization in the world market is the trade in products of science-intensive high-tech industries, such as the production of ultra-large integrated circuits and microprocessors, CNC machine tools and industrial robots.
The volume of Japan's foreign trade is constantly growing (760 billion dollars, 1997 - the third place after the USA and Germany). Japan's main trading partners are economically developed countries, primarily the United States (30% of exports, 25% of imports), Germany, Australia, and Canada. Major partners are the Republic of Korea and China.
The volume of trade with the countries of Southeast Asia (29% of external turnover) and Europe is increasing. The largest suppliers of oil to Japan are the countries of the Persian Gulf
An important direction of Japan's foreign economic activity is the export of capital. In terms of foreign investment, the country has become one of the leaders along with the United States and Great Britain. Moreover, the share of capital investment in the development of the country is growing. Japan invests its capital in trade, banking, loans and other services (about 50%), in the manufacturing and mining industries around the world. Acute foreign economic conflicts between Japan and the United States and the countries of Western Europe lead to a struggle for sources of raw materials, markets and areas for capital investment. The scale of foreign entrepreneurship of Japanese firms is expanding. Moreover, along with the export of environmentally hazardous, energy- and material-intensive industries (by building enterprises in developing countries), there is also a transfer to these countries of some machine-building industries - those whose development in Japan is becoming less respectable (transferred to places where costs are lower). for the labor force).
Japanese firms are especially active in the NIS of Asia - in the Republic of Korea, Taiwan and Singapore. Textile, food, clothing, metallurgical, chemical industries, electronic and precision engineering enterprises created there with the participation of Japanese capital are becoming serious competitors to Japanese firms (especially small and medium ones) in the world and even in the domestic market of Japan.
All of Japan's largest industrial companies are transnational corporations, one of the largest in the world. In the list of the 500 largest TNCs in the world, very high positions are occupied by: Toyota motor, Honda motor - in the automotive industry; Hitachi, Sony, NEC - in electronics; Toshiba, Fujitsu, Canon - in the production of computer equipment, etc.
One of the most important factors in Japan's economic development is its extensive participation in international technology trade. Technology exports are dominated by licenses in the field of electrical and transport engineering, chemistry, and construction. Geographically, Japanese technology exports in the 1980s were dominated by developing countries. Particularly active is the exchange of licenses for technological processes in the field of electrical engineering, chemical industry, etc.
Russian-Japanese relations.
In recent years, foreign economic relations with Russia have become a new way of cooperation, where joint ventures with the participation of Japanese capital are now operating. The geographic location of the joint venture is mainly limited to the Far East region. Japan has become the main trading partner of the Primorsky Territory, the Sakhalin Region, and the Khabarovsk Territory. Oil, coal, non-ferrous metals, timber, cellulose, fish and seafood are exported from Russia.
In general, in the international division of labor, Japan is one of the world's financial centers, as well as a manufacturer of products from high-tech industries - the "research and production laboratory of the world." It can be expected that by the beginning of the 21st century, Japan will overtake the United States in terms of the degree of involvement in the world economy.
Interesting Facts.
* The Japanese themselves have called their country Nippon (or Nihhon) since ancient times. This name consists of two hieroglyphic characters, one of which means "Sun", and the second - "base". Hence the allegorical name of Japan, as the land of the rising sun. The red sun circle on the Japanese flag and the round chrysanthemum (national flower of the Japanese) on the country's national emblem also symbolize the rising sun.
* Shintoism (from the word “Shinto”, which means “divine way”) caters for the main religious and everyday rituals, and above all wedding ceremonies, which always take place in Shinto temples. Buddhism, on the contrary, takes over all funeral and funeral rites.
* There are about 40 different festivals held in Japan every year. One of them is the famous snow festival on the “white” island of Hokkaido, which takes place in early February. More than 300 snow structures rise on the main street of Sapporo during the festival days. These are characters from fairy tales, literary heroes, copies of famous landowners and architectural structures.
* The total length of the streets of Tokyo is 22 thousand km., Which is more than half the length of the equator; there are 4 million houses in the city. However, most of the streets do not have names at all. Plates with numbers indicate the number of the district (and there are 23 of them in the city), block, serial numbers of apartments. Finding an address in Tokyo is very difficult even for the police, for drivers who are famous for their high quality of service, not to mention guests and visitors. Separate parts of the city are interconnected by high-speed car overpasses, but even they hardly provide traffic for 5 million cars.
* Fish and all kinds of other seafood - octopuses, shellfish, large shrimp - the Japanese are more likely to eat raw, less often dried, although in Japanese cuisine there are many ways to cook boiled, baked, fried in a pan or charcoal dishes from these products.
* The total length of the Shinkasen (New Line) highway is about 1,100 km. Trains travel along it at an average speed of 200 km/h or more. The movement is especially high on the Tokyo-Osaka section, 515 km long, where up to 120 pairs of trains pass per day, and about 120 million passengers are transported per year, which is equal to the entire population of the country. The distance between these cities express “Hikari” (“Light”) takes 2 hours 15 minutes. At the same time, he overcomes 66 tunnels and 3 thousand bridges.
* The world's largest nuclear power plant in Fukushima, located 200 km. North of Tokyo, in 1998, with the launch of the seventh reactor, it reached a capacity of 8.2 million kW. And the world's largest metallurgical plant in Fukuyama, on the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan, has a capacity of 16 million tons of steel per year.
Application.
Comparison table.
| place | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Number of people employed in industry | China | USA | Japan |
| Power generation | USA | China | Japan |
| Electricity generation at nuclear power plants | USA | France | Japan |
| Steel | China | Japan | USA |
| Cars | Japan | USA | Germany |
| Sea vessels | Japan | The Republic of Korea | Germany |
| Industrial robots | Japan | USA | Germany |
| Electronics products | USA | Japan | Germany |
| plastics | USA | Japan | Germany |
| scientific equipment | USA | Japan | Germany |
Bibliography.
To Asia and the NAFTA region. Exports to the EMU countries are increasing due to the huge circulation space of the euro. The superiority of exports over imports in a number of sectors of the German economy: in the chemical industry, electrical engineering indicates the possibility of further strengthening in the domestic market, taking advantage of the weakness of the euro. Mechanical engineering is characterized by the insignificance of imports in general ...
USA, Germany and some others European countries, although recently it has been gradually moving to less developed countries. CHAPTER 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MACHINE-BUILDING COMPLEX ON THE EXAMPLE OF SOME COUNTRIES 3.1 Mechanical engineering of Japan Mechanical engineering of Japan is a rather motley structural formation. A large role belongs to the modernized industries of mass...
Technologies. This is due to a number of reasons: the proximity of Japan, which facilitates the exchange between the two states; favorable economic and geographical position and large territory; availability of qualified professionals. 1.4 FEATURES OF THE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECONOMIC COMPLEX OF THE COUNTRY The growing differences between the city and the countryside have already become a major challenge facing ...
Territory - 372 thousand square meters. km.
Population - 127 million people. (2000).
The capital is Tokyo.
Geographical position, general information
Japan is an archipelago country located on four large and almost four thousand small islands, stretching out in an arc of 3.5 thousand km. from northeast to southwest along east coast Asia. Largest islands Honshu, Hokaido, Kyushu and Shikoku. The shores of the archipelago are strongly indented and form many bays and coves. The seas and oceans washing Japan are of exceptional importance for the country as a source of biological, mineral and energy resources.
The economic and geographical position of Japan is determined primarily by the fact that it is located in the center of the Asia-Pacific region, which contributes to the country's active participation in the international geographical division of labor.
On the territory of present-day Japan, the oldest human traces found date back to the Paleolithic period. In the 3rd - 4th centuries BC, proto-Japanese tribes came from southeastern China. In the 5th century BC, the Japanese adopted hieroglyphic writing, in the 6th century they adopted Buddhism.
During the feudal period, Japan was isolated from other countries. After the incomplete bourgeois revolution of 1867-1868, it embarked on the path of rapid capitalist development. At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries, it became one of the imperialist powers. In the 20th century, Japan entered and participated in three major wars (Russian-Japanese and two world wars). After the end of World War II, the armed forces were disbanded and reforms were carried out. In 1947, the emperor lost his power (according to the constitution), now Japan is a constitutional monarchy. The highest body of state power and the only body of legislative power is the Parliament.
Natural conditions and resources
The geological basis of the archipelago is underwater mountain ranges. About 80% of the territory is occupied by mountains and hills with a highly dissected relief of an average height of 1600 - 1700 m. There are about 200 volcanoes, 90 are active, including the highest peak - the Fudei volcano (3,776 m). Frequent earthquakes and tsunamis.
The country is poor in minerals, but coal, lead and zinc ores, oil, sulfur, and limestone are being mined. The resources of its own deposits are small, so Japan is the largest importer of raw materials.
Despite the small area, the length of the country in the meridional direction led to the existence of a unique complex on its territory. natural conditions: the island of Hokkaido and the north of Honshu are located in the temperate maritime climate zone, the rest of Honshu, the islands of Shikoku and Yushu - in a humid subtropical climate, and the island of Ryukyu - in a tropical climate. Japan is in the zone of active monsoon activity. The average annual rainfall ranges from 2 - 4 thousand mm.
The soils of Japan are mainly slightly podzolic and peaty, as well as brown forest and red soils. Approximately 2/3 of the territory, mostly mountainous areas, covered with forests (more than half of the forests are artificial plantations). Coniferous forests predominate in northern Hokkaido, mixed forests in central Honshu and southern Hokkaido, and subtropical monsoon forests in the south.
There are many rivers in Japan, full-flowing, fast and rapids, of little use for navigation, but which are a source for hydropower and irrigation.
Abundance of rivers. lakes and groundwater have a beneficial effect on the development of industry and agriculture.
In the post-war period, environmental problems intensified on the Japanese islands. The adoption and implementation of a number of laws on environmental protection reduces the level of environmental pollution.
Population
Japan is among the top ten countries in the world in terms of population. Japan became the first Asian country to switch from the second to the first type of population reproduction. Now the birth rate is 12 ppm, the death rate is 8 ppm. Life expectancy in the country is the highest in the world (76 years for men and 82 years for women).
The population is distinguished by national homogeneity, about 99% are Japanese. Of the other nationalities, the number of Koreans and Chinese is significant. The most common religions are Shintoism and Buddhism. The population is unevenly distributed over the area. Average density - 330 people. per 1 sq. m. but the coastal regions of the Pacific Ocean are among the most densely populated in the world.
About 80% of the population lives in cities. 11 cities are millionaires. The largest urban agglomerations of Keihin, Hanshin and Chuke merge into the Tokyo metropolis (Takaido) with a population of more than 60 million people.
economy
The growth rate of the Japanese economy was one of the highest in the second half of the 20th century. The country has largely carried out a qualitative restructuring of the economy. Japan is at the post-industrial stage of development, which is characterized by a highly developed industry, but the most growing area is the non-manufacturing sector (services, finance,).
Although Japan is poor natural resources and imports raw materials for most industries, in terms of the output of many industries, it ranks 1-2 in the world. Industry is mainly concentrated within the Pacific industrial belt.
Power industry. Mainly uses imported raw materials. Oil is the leader in the structure of the resource base, the share of natural gas, hydropower and nuclear power is growing, and the share of coal is declining.
In the electric power industry, 60% of the capacity comes from thermal power plants and 28% from nuclear power plants, including Fukushima, the most powerful in the world.
HPPs are located in cascades on mountain rivers. In terms of hydroelectric power generation, Japan ranks fifth in the world. In resource-poor Japan, alternative energy sources are being actively developed.
Ferrous metallurgy. In terms of steel production, the country ranks first in the world. The share of Japan in the world market of ferrous metallurgy is 23%.
The largest centers, now operating almost entirely on imported raw materials and fuel, are located near Osaka, Tokyo, in the city of Fujiyama.
Non-ferrous metallurgy. Due to the harmful impact on the environment, the primary smelting of non-ferrous metals is reduced. Processing plants are located in all major industrial centers.
Mechanical engineering provides 40% of industrial production. The main sub-sectors among the many developed in Japan are electronics and electrical engineering, the radio industry and transport engineering.
Japan firmly occupies the 1st place in the world in shipbuilding, specializes in the construction of large-capacity tankers and bulk carriers. The main centers of shipbuilding and ship repair are located in the largest ports (Yokohama, Nagasaki, Kobe).
In terms of car production (13 million units per year), Japan also ranks 1st in the world. The main centers are Toyota, Yokohama, Hiroshima.
The main enterprises of general engineering are located within the Pacific industrial belt - complex machine tool building and industrial robots in the Tokyo region, metal-intensive equipment - in Osaka, machine tool building - in the Nagoya region.
The share of the country in the world output of the radio-electronic and electrical industry is exceptionally large.
In terms of the level of development of the chemical industry, Japan occupies one of the first places in the world.
Japan also has developed pulp and paper, light and food industries.
Japan's agriculture remains important industry, although it gives about 2% of GNP; the industry employs 6.5% of EAN. Agricultural production is focused on food production (the country itself provides 70% of its needs).
13% of the territory is cultivated, and the structure of crop production (provides 70% of agricultural production) is dominated by the cultivation of rice and vegetables, and horticulture is developed. Animal husbandry (cattle breeding, pig breeding, poultry farming) is intensively developing.
Due to the exclusive place of fish and seafood in the diet of the Japanese, the country fishes in all areas of the World Ocean, has more than three thousand fishing ports and has the largest fishing fleet (over 400 thousand vessels).
Transport
In Japan, all types of transport are developed, with the exception of river and pipeline transport. In terms of cargo transportation, the first place is occupied by road transport (60%), the second place - by sea. The role of rail transport is declining, while air travel is growing. Due to very active foreign economic relations, Japan has the largest merchant fleet in the world.
The territorial structure of the economy is characterized by a combination of two completely different parts: the Pacific belt, which is the socio-economic core of the country (here are the main industrial areas, ports, transport routes and developed agriculture) and the peripheral zone, which includes areas where timber harvesting is most developed, animal husbandry, mining, hydropower, tourism and recreation. Despite the implementation of a regional policy, the smoothing of territorial disproportions is still slow.
Foreign economic relations of Japan
Japan actively participates in the MGRT, foreign trade occupies a leading place, the export of capital, industrial, scientific, technical and other ties are also developed.
The share of Japan in world imports is about 1/10. Mainly raw materials and fuel are imported.
The country's share in world exports is also more than 1/10. Industrial goods account for 98% of exports.
In foreign Japanese studies, two approaches to the use of comparative research methods have developed. The first one (theories of Japanese uniqueness "nihonjin ron" and "nihon bunka ron"), based on a comparison of Japanese and other cultural traditions, asserts the idea of exclusivity, specialness. The second uses the methods of cross-cultural analysis to understand the relationship of the history of Japanese society and culture with other societies and cultures, with the general processes and laws of world history. These connections are considered both at the formal (as a result of the cultural and historical commonality of countries and peoples) and at a broader functional level (as an expression of sometimes formally different, but stadially or formally general trends in social and cultural development) levels.
Japanese culture is usually classified as oriental (although this concept itself is more of a spatial-geographical character than scientific definition). More accurate and correct (from the point of view of the commonality of cultural history) is the inclusion of Japan among the countries of the East Asian cultural area, which includes China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia, and the countries of Indochina. This view was held and held by many researchers.
“Among many foreign scientists,” emphasizes the American sociologist R. Bella, “it has become customary to consider Japan as part of the East Asian cultural zone or as an accomplice of Chinese ... civilization. In the general concept of Asian culture, which includes as components the East Asian, South Asian and Middle Eastern cultural zones with Chinese, Indian and Islamic civilizations dominating in them, respectively, it is quite obvious that Japan belongs to the first zone ”(Bellah, 1972: 47 ). Traditionally, the Chinese believed, and many continue to believe today, that Japanese culture is the "daughter" of Chinese, and therefore "Japanese for the Chinese are not foreigners" (Ogasawara, 1981: 83). Many Japanese researchers, in particular, the well-known cultural anthropologist Yoneyama Toshinao (Yoneyama, 1973: 196), have recently written and are writing about Japanese culture as a branch of Chinese culture. The dominance of this opinion in Japan, China and the West is also confirmed by the well-known Japanese sinologist Nakajima Mineo (Nakajima, 1986: 16-17).
The problem of cultural and historical community, often understood as a problem of common traditions, acquired new tones and sounds, required the search for the origins of its internal differentiation due to the variety of ways and rates of economic and social development of countries belonging to the same cultural region, in the new time. This process was especially evident in the East Asian cultural zone. Japan, belonging to the countries of this zone, since the 80s of the last century began to rapidly develop its industry, modernize its economy, actively intervened in the struggle for the colonial redistribution of the world, competing in these areas with the leading countries of the West. At the same time, Japan's neighbors in the East Asian cultural zone in the late XIX - early XX centuries. have not shown such a rapid pace of development modern economy, industry.
In search of an answer to the question about the reasons for these differences in the pace of industrialization and modernization of Japan and other countries of East Asia, foreign researchers turned to the analysis of differences in their historical development, in their cultural traditions. The united East Asian community diversified, the Japanese cultural tradition was singled out from the common heritage, in which researchers at the functional level found certain similarities with Western culture. The authors of various concepts of Japan's modernization in their original Westernization version were looking for cultural equivalents to the Western sources of modernization in Japanese traditions, primarily in religious ones.
The tendency to search for the origins of industrialization and modernization in traditional values originates from M. Weber's famous work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" (Weber, 1958). As you know, in this book, M. Weber argued that the causes of industrialization and modernization are cultural, and above all religious, values. They provide the necessary background for these purposes, supporting and stimulating interest in hard work and frugality. M. Weber found such values in Protestantism, primarily in Calvinism, but found no analogues of Protestant ethics in the religions of China, India and Islam. Although in 1904 - the year of the publication of Weber's book - Japan has already widely demonstrated its economic and military capabilities to the whole world. Weber did not look for equivalents of the Protestant ethic in the Japanese religious tradition. This attempt was made later. In 1941, the Japanese scholar Naito Kanji (Naito, 1941), based on the concept of M. Weber on the influence of Protestant asceticism on the formation of the "spirit of capitalism" in the West, studied the role of the ethics of the Buddhist sect "Jodo Shinshu" ("new sect clean land”) in the modernization of Japan. His idea was later developed in famous work American Japanese scholar R. Bellah "The Tokugawa Religion" (Bellah, 1957).
The American sociologist argues that the central value system of Japanese society has made an important contribution to its political and economic rationalization. Despite the fact that there are many similarities in the cultural and religious traditions of China and Japan, their central value systems, according to Bella, are completely different, which affected their attitude towards modernization. In China, integrative values prevailed. In a society dominated by this type of value, there is more concern for maintaining the system than for being goal-oriented, for solidarity than for power or wealth. For integrative systems, the predominance of particularism is typical; and performance orientation. This implies a special emphasis not so much on some universalist principles as on interpersonal relations, especially particularistic ties, the most typical of which are blood relations, but these can also be compatriot ties. At the same time, integrative systems are characterized by more attention to performance than to achievement, to “virtue” than to deeds. Kinship, perhaps more than anything else, symbolizes the values of particularism and performance, and much in Chinese society can be seen as a symbolic continuation and generalization of the meaning of kinship (Bellah, 1957: 189). In China, even the imperial rule was very "family-like." Political values were also important. The Chinese saw the problem of maintaining the system as maintaining a certain set of human relationships, which only required the adjustment of relationships in the name of maintaining a state of harmony in the social system. Well-established and stable balance was the true ideal of Chinese society. If in Japan the maintenance of the system was an important, but secondary value, then in China, the achievement of the goal and performance was assigned an important, but secondary role. Distinguishing the importance of political and integrative values in the life of Chinese and Japanese societies is especially noticeable when comparing the place in them of loyalty and filial piety. In Japan, preference was given to the former, while in China, filial piety was valued above loyalty, while loyalty itself was understood in a limited way. In contrast, in Japan, “loyalty permeated the whole of society and became the ideal of all classes (ibid.).
The political power of the tops in Japan extended to the lowest strata of society. In China, on the contrary, the daily life of the people was regulated by social authority, while the power of the imperial court was limited by narrow limits: “a good monarch collected a certain amount of taxes and left the people alone” (ibid.: 190). When the Chinese emperors were interested in strengthening national power and took purposeful steps for this, they constantly ran into resistance from the bureaucracy, which was oriented more towards preserving the existing system of interests than towards the political values of achieving the goal. This opposition of the bureaucracy to the political measures of the central government continued after the revolution of 1911, which, in fact, explains the failure of many reform attempts in China. Although in the history of China there are many cases of the desire of some officials to faithfully serve to strengthen national power, they have never been able to take a dominant position in the management of society and carry out a comprehensive program of modernizing the country, as did the young samurai in Japan after the Meiji Revolution (1867-1868). These officials have always been more or less paralyzed by their devotion to maintaining the old system. But even within the framework of integrative values, there was room for noticeable rationalization, in particular, the rational “this-worldly” Confucian ethics. However, the Chinese value system focused not so much on the accumulation of wealth or the increase of national power, but on maintaining stability and balance. Therefore, in China it was difficult to overcome the traditionalism of the masses and transfer the feeling of loyalty from the family to the larger collective whole. “Rationalism, which is characteristic of Confucian ethics,” says R. Bella, “obviously needs a connection with a value system in which political values occupy the first place in order to orient society towards modernization. It happened in Japan...” (ibid.: 192).
A comparison of the traditional value systems of China and Japan shows that both of them focus on political and integrative values, on loyalty and filial piety, their difference lies in the primacy of the accent. This circumstance also explains the difference in the ways of social development of the two countries, which is connected not so much with the absence or presence of some important values, but with the ways and methods of organizing these values (ibid.).
Religion played an important role in the process of political and economic rationalization of Japan. It maintained and strengthened the devotion to core values, stimulating and legitimizing the necessary political innovations, reinforcing the ethic of worldly asceticism, which requires hard work and economy. Religion played an important role in the formation of a central system of values favorable to the industrialization of Japan. It strengthened the commitment to industrialization, making it meaningful in the highest sense. For the Japanese, family and country were not just collectives, they had religious significance. Parents and political leaders were almost "consecrated" by the Japanese. The fulfillment of one's duties to the elders took on a higher meaning. This guaranteed in the future good will, patronage and protection of man from the difficulties and dangers of earthly life.
Religion contributed to the development of an economic ethic based on solid worldly asceticism. It was like the Christian concept of vocation, and work for the Japanese became a "sacred duty." Examples of this can be found in the teachings of the Jodo Shinshu sect, where the following instructions are found: "Watch and do not shy away from hard work in the morning and evening", "Be moderate in aimless luxury", "Work diligently at home", "Do not play gambling”, “It is better to take a little than to take a lot” (ibid.: 119). Unlike Confucianism, which recognized the pursuit of profit as a dubious occupation for a worthy man, and other sects of Buddhism, which saw greed (and hence, of course, in the appropriation of profit) the greatest sin, the Jodo Shinshu sect justified them.
The religious movements that arose during the Tokugawa period, having acquired independent institutional forms and a large number of adherents, contributed to an even greater intensification of the Japanese central value system and an increase in devotion to it. Japanese religions in their orthodox and sectarian forms, notes R. Bella, equally contributed to the integration of society, strengthening its value system, which turned out to be favorable and contributed to the industrialization of Japan when it was carried out (ibid: 195). In addition, religion played an important role in political rationalization, elevating certain religio-political authorities and at the same time strengthening the motivation and creating a legitimate basis for the movement to restore the power of the emperor, despite the fact that this restoration meant at the same time a break with many the customs of the past.
A characteristic feature of the Weberian approach is the recognition of cultural factors as a powerful motivating force for social change, and above all, modernization. The equivalents of the Protestant ethic with its values - industriousness, frugality, hoarding, willingness to refuse direct rewards - are called by a number of foreign researchers the values of traditional Japanese religions (Shintoism, Buddhism) and Confucianism. According to scientists, they contributed to the creation of a well-organized society with a high "social discipline" and work ethic. Moreover, some researchers note that traditional Japanese religious movements not only proclaimed the virtue of diligence, moderation, devotion, but also encouraged the occupation commercial activities, the desire to receive income. In general, in the traditional Japanese religions, the followers of Weber in Japanese studies found not only the origins of the high work ethic of the Japanese, but also the motivational origins of the orientation towards the economic and political development of the country as a modern society.
Emphasis on the ethical values of Japanese society, equivalent to "Protestant ethics", can also be found in the works of E. Ayala, X. Nakamura, M. Levy, D. Hirschmayer. Thus, E. Ayal (Ayal, 1963) believes that asceticism, thrift, diligence in achieving goals and objectives, activity in the performance of the duties assigned to the Japanese by his social status and loyalty to the norms of Japanese Confucianism played an important role in the uniform functioning -vania of Japanese society. In Japanese Buddhism, the observance of the above ethical norms of behavior was mandatory for a believer. Ayal ascribes to Shintoism an important modernizing function — the intensification of the devotion of the Japanese to the state (ibid.: 41). Japanese religious and ethical movements, such as the Buddhist Shin, Shingaku, and Hotoku, not only held in high esteem such virtues as diligence, temperance, and loyalty to political authority, but also recognized and supported commercial, activity, and profit-making. The Xing sect, which saw the accumulation of wealth on the basis of commerce as a charitable deed, attached particular importance to this. The Shingaku movement sought to legitimize the position and significantly raise the social status of the urban merchant class (ibid.: 42-43).
The famous Japanese specialist in the history of philosophy Nakamura Hajime (Nakamura, 1967) found a correspondence with the Western ideas of industrialism and modernism in the doctrine of the work ethic of the Zen monk Suzuki Shosan (1579-1655). According to him, every job, every deed is a test of faith, since all professions are a manifestation of the Divine Absolute. There is no other way of Buddhist religious practice, except for endless devotion to the earthly affairs of man, his labor duty. The shosan taught that a trader should give his whole strength to the achievement of the goal. He also argued that the amount of wealth and the life span of a person are determined by karma and therefore one should work for the good of people, neglecting personal interests, since the reward for diligence, diligence and asceticism is sent down by "Heaven" (ibid.: 7-9).
However, the use of the Weberian approach to explaining the origins of modernization is a simple transfer of Western forms of development to Japanese soil without taking into account its originality and the possibility of using other ways and means. The Japanese researcher Ogasawara Shin (Ogasawara, 1981) draws attention to the fact that Naito and Bella consider the connection of the Jodo Shinshu ethics with commercial capital, while Weber correlates the ethics of Protestantism with industrial capital. Weber himself did not recognize Jodo Shinshu Buddhism as a modernizing role. Ogasawara Shin believes that in Japan, in the person of Jodo Shinshu, there really was a movement that had partly the same significance for the modernization of Japan as Protestantism for the modernization of the West, but its role was not as great, and therefore does not deserve a high positive ratings (ibid.: 69).
Some critics also point out that Japanese religiosity differs significantly from Western religiosity in character - it is not so deep and dogmatic, and therefore its conceptual impact is not solid. Recognized as a traditional value, such a virtue as loyalty, according to the latest research by foreign Japanese scholars, did not have deep historical roots, but was implanted by the ideologically young Japanese bourgeoisie and used by it to strengthen its still low social status in the Meiji era. Weber's theory of Protestant ethics seems to be well reasoned and quite reliable for the analysis of Western economic development. However, when it finds its application outside the West, especially in Japan, its use is not entirely fruitful. Searches for links between religious traditions and economic behavior in Japan are selective, fragmentary, and simplistic at best. It is necessary to approach the study of the industrialization and modernization of Japan from a broader historical position, including not only religious traditions, but the entire process of socio-cultural-historical development, institutional structures and their changes. “Japanese industriousness, thrift and discipline, close to the Protestant work ethic,” notes the American Japanologist M. Jo, “were deeply rooted in Japanese customs and ideas, not necessarily associated with any particular religious experience. In fact, it is quite possible that economic development and the industrialization of Japan would have occurred independently of traditional Japanese religious values” (Jo, 1987: 12).
Another group of foreign Japanese scholars sees the origins of the rapid and successful modernization of Japan not in a partial coincidence of values, but in the identity of the processes of historical, and in particular cultural and historical, development of Japan and Western countries, including the transformation of the value system. First of all, attention is drawn to the growth in the Tokugawa era (1603-1867) of the significance of universalist values. This, according to the researchers, meant the formation of a "modern spirit" in Japan. The Japanese philosopher and philologist Nishio Kanji (Nishio, 1983) notes that, unlike China and other Asian countries, Japan immediately after the Meiji revolution showed a high interest in the culture of the West, and connects this phenomenon with the fact that the foundation necessary for rapprochement was laid. in Japan before. “Even if Japan had not come into contact with Western culture in the 19th century. its stage of evolution made inevitable, sooner or later, the awakening of the same modern spirit” (ibid.: 66). The Japanese historian Mizushima Sanichiro (Mizushima, 1979) writes: "The foundations of Japan's modernization were laid already in the 17th century, shortly after the start of the policy of isolation" (ibid.: 165).
The development of this movement was associated with the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, but at the same time did not experience any influence of Christianity. Nishio argues that Japan and the West, moving along independent but parallel paths and going through similar historical processes, arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries. approximately the same stage in their development. Although in Japan the industrial revolution began 50-100 years later than in the countries of Western Europe, from a modern point of view, this lag cannot be considered very significant. Japan's rapid and successful absorption of Western science and technology was possible because the Tokugawa period laid the foundations for modernization. During this time, modern rationalistic thinking gradually developed in Japan. “Japanese feudalism, unlike Chinese, had a number of similar features to European ones that helped it modernize” (Nishio, 1983: 67). Japan was much less "monolithic" and closed in its own cultural tradition than China, the "entrepreneurial spirit" quickly grew in the country and the youth aspired to pursue their own interests. By the end of the XVIII century. Japan already had developed financial and commercial institutions. The standard of living of the average Japanese at that time was not inferior to the European one on the eve of the French Revolution. According to the Russian admiral V. Golovkin, in early XIX century, Japan had a relatively high technology, it was an enlightened country. “In other words,” notes Nishio, “although the development of modern civilization in Japan has undoubtedly been spurred on by Western influence, western world simply pushed the forces that had matured in the country during the Tokugawa period ... The birth of modern Japan became possible due to the country's own development trends. Although the influence of the West was great, it did not become fundamental” (ibid.).
Some researchers attribute the modern competitive success of Japan to its unique cultural tradition, and above all to its collectivism, in fact, there is nothing unique in it, since all modernizing nations at a certain stage of their development are guided by collectivism. The psychological chasm separating Japan today from West Germany, for example, "strikingly resembles the differences that existed between Germany and England at the end of the 19th century." (ibid: 69).
In studies focusing on the modernizing processes in Japanese society and culture in the Tokugawa era, i.e. in studies examining Japanese culture in its dynamic development, changes in the very content and direction of the intellectual and sociocultural life of Japan at that time are noted. First of all, it is noted that in Japan there were “revolutionary changes” (according to the definition of M. Levy, changes of this type are a necessary condition for modernization), in contrast to China, where the changes were of a “renovation character” (quoted from : Mitchell, 1975: 129). With an obvious external focus on stabilizing the order that existed in the country, the system created during the Tokugawa period stimulated serious profound changes, which, although they did not undermine order, carried tensions and contradictions in their “revolutionizing” characteristics that destroyed society’s ability to maintaining a stable order, notes historian P. Mitchell (ibid.).
During the Tokugawa period, significant changes took place in the spiritual culture of Japan, which marked the growth of rationalistic and secularist tendencies. Confucianism freed itself from those burdensome restrictions that bound it to Buddhist and Shinto centers. Neo-Confucianism in its Zhuxian version emphasized a rational, secular understanding of the universe, tying "moral man" and "moral society" to a conservative, hierarchical and centralized order, while at the same time emphasizing the importance of human self-realization and loyal bureaucratic service. Both served to establish a new order.
The English sociologist R. Dor notes that Tokugawa Confucianism, despite the particularism of duties prescribed by its ethics, was in principle universalist in two ways. important values. Firstly, it was a teaching about the way of man, and therefore, as such, the Confucian teaching was not forbidden even for ordinary people. Secondly, the Confucian criteria for human superiority, moral character and virtue were fundamentally objective (Dore, 1984: 312).
The Japanese historian Hiraishi Naoaki (Hiraishi, 1975, 1986) notes that in the history of Japanese culture of the late 17th - early 18th centuries. one can find interesting parallels to the scientific or intellectual revolution in Europe in the 17th century, which, as you know, was a complete revolution in views on nature, man and society.
A prominent representative of this upheaval in Japan was the famous Confucian thinker Ogyu Sorai (1666-1728). His proposals in the field of institutional reforms were based on the Confucian doctrine he created, some of whose provisions were very close to the ideas of the creators of the scientific revolution in Europe in the 17th century. Firstly, Ogyu Soray, analyzing the cognitive activity of a person, argued that the subject perceives the world with the help of concepts and artifacts created by himself, i.e. in this respect, his look resembles the Cartesian “cogito ergo sum” - “I think, therefore I exist." His interpretation of the concept of "Heaven" ("tian") as the ultimate reality, not adequately comprehended by man, was in fact an expression of a fundamental gap between man and nature, reflecting the emergence of modern consciousness. In his understanding of The Way, he was close to Hobbes' idea of the creation of social institutions and values by people themselves. In his philosophy, a clear dividing line is drawn between mythology and reality, the world is objectified. All this meant "the birth of the modern era in the history of Japanese thought" (Hiraishi, 1986: 126).
As the American Japanologist Hall notes, the neo-Confucian Shushigaku school gave the Tokugawa rulers a moral order that extended to the entire human society and regulated the behavior of the ruler and subordinates. It was believed that the military government performs the function of spreading and maintaining universal social values, protecting a harmoniously developing civil society. Thus, the Bakufu began to develop a sense of social responsibility (Hall, 1970: 77). This ethic was dictated more by pragmatic goals than by purely philosophical or ideological conviction. At this time, pragmatic goals dictated their conditions to philosophical and ideological ones, and not vice versa. The result of this process was a variety of intellectual schools and trends, as well as the dominance of strong eclecticism in them. This diversity and richness in cultural and intellectual life developed in parallel with diversification in the socio-economic sphere, notes P. Mitchell (Mitchell, 1975: 133). This diversity allowed unorthodox areas of knowledge to develop in Japan.
Unlike the intellectual history of China, in Japan, by the end of the 18th century. despite the “closure” of the country, the “Dutch doctrine” (“rangaku”) began to play an important role in the life of society. This contributed to the gradual growth of recognition of modern Western thought and the emergence of an alternative to traditional Chinese universalist thought.
As noted by the famous English Japanese scholar R. Dor, “on the eve of the 19th century, interest in the West was no longer just a subject of superficial passion for Western exoticism and love for Western trinkets ... it became a serious desire for scientific knowledge, the superiority of which over knowledge traditionally obtained from Chinese texts was recognized” (quoted in Mitchell, 1975: 133). In Japan at this time, regardless of the direct influence of the West, serious scientific discoveries were made. Although it is difficult to talk about Japan's entry into the world of "international science" of the new time, the very fact of the keen interest of Japanese society in it testifies to significant changes in worldview and value ideas.
An important feature of the changes that took place during the Tokugawa period was the spread of education and intellectual life beyond the elite strata of society. The new urban centers became not only places of concentration of political and economic activity, linking the country into a single market, but also centers of cultural change. It is believed that by the middle of the nineteenth century. 40% of the total population of Japan were literate (ibid.), which exceeded the European level of that time. This led not only to an increase in the level of knowledge of ordinary strata of society, but also to an expansion of the scope of their consciousness, a disposition to accept new ideas and technologies, opened up prospects for them to know the world as a universe, and not as a narrow and limited local community.
In relation to literacy and readiness to modernize, Japan differed significantly from China, where from time immemorial there was a belief in the greatness of their civilization. The belief in the superiority of one's own culture made it difficult to accept foreign ideas. Therefore, China did not significantly change its political system. Outwardly, it seemed much more rational than the modern Japanese one. The weakness was that thanks to it, almost all capable people in China became government officials, while in other sectors of society there were almost none. Even at the beginning of the 20th century, when the Chinese who studied in the West returned home, they could not in any way overcome the old political structure, ideologically based for many centuries on Confucianism. This is the reason for the slow pace of China's modernization (Mizushima, 1979: 164),
In contrast, the system of education and upbringing of the samurai in the Tokugawa era, according to R. Dor, developed their interest in individual achievements, personal success.
The ideological orientation of education in Tokugawa schools towards collectivist goals and attitudes was not supported by real practice, which would allow the formation of young samurai "collectivist spirit". In military training, it was important to demonstrate personal skill in a single duel.
"The playing fields of Eton, or at least Dr. Arnold's Rugby, were much more in line with the collectivism of the Tokugawa ideology than were the classrooms or the war halls of the feudal princes' schools in Japan," notes R. Dore (1984: 313).
“The combination of the individualistic desire to succeed with the collectivist goals in ideology was what helped to accelerate the pace of economic and social change while at the same time incorporating individual efforts into the structure of national goals” (ibid: 314).
In evaluating the Japanese cultural tradition within the framework of the “general” and “special”, the group of researchers presented in this review pays attention neither to culture as a dynamic whole, nor to the general processes of cultural and historical development that objectively reflect socio-economic changes taking place in societies. In her understanding of the main development trends as a movement from tradition to modernization along the Western model, Japanese culture in the Tokugawa era (in contrast to the Chinese culture of that time) made an important “revolutionizing” shift, reminiscent, from the point of view of procedural, axiological and functional , something that happened a little earlier or almost in the same time in Western countries. Japan was moving from its particularism to the universalism of modern times.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Yoneyama Toshinao. Nihonjin no kokuminsei // Nihonjin to wa nani ka / Iijima Soichi, Sabata Toyoyuki hen. Tokyo. 1973. S. 183-208.
National character of the Japanese people.
Naito Kanji. Shu: kyo: to keizai rinri // Shakaigaku. Tokyo. 1941. V. 8. S. 243-286.
Religion and economic logic.
Nakajima Mineo. Nihonjin to chu: gokujin: Koko ga o: chigai. Tokyo: Nesco books, 1986: 228 p.
Japanese and Chinese.
Okada Hidehiro. To: adzia-ni okeru nihonjin-no imeji // Kokusai gokkai to nihonjin. Tokyo. 1983. S. 78-89.
Perceptions of the Japanese in East Asia.
Ogasawara Shin. Nihon no kindaika to jodo shinshu // Shakaigaku hyon. Tokyo. 1981. V. 32, No. 27. S. 57-71.
Modernization of Japan and the Buddhist sect Jodo Shinshu.
Ayal E. Value systems and economic development in Japan and Thailand // J. of social iss. Boston. 1963 Vol. 19. Nl. P. 35-51.
Bellah R. Japan "s cultural identity: Some reflections on the work of Watsuji Tetsuro // Japan: Enduring scholarship: Sel. from the "Far Eastern quart". "The j. of Asian studies". 1941-1971. Tucson (Ariz .) 1972. Vol. 2. P. 47-68.
Bellah R. N. Tokugawa religon: The values of pre-industrial Japan. Glencoe: Free press. 1957.IX. 249p.
Dore R. Education in Tokugawa Japan. Berkeley Univ. of California Press. 1984. 364 p.
Hall G. W. Tokugawa Japan: 1600-l853 // Modern East Asia: Essays in interpretation.; N.Y. 1970. P. 62-94.
Hiraishi Naoaki. Ogyu Sorai's Confucianism: An analysis of its modern nature // Annals of the Inst. of social science. Tokyo. 1986. N 4. P. 107-127.
Hiraishi Naoaki. Universalism in late Tokugawa Japan: The "Confucian" thought of Yokoi Shonan // Annals of the Inst. of social science. Tokyo. 1975. N 1. P. 1-55.
Jo M. H. Japanese traditional values and industrialization // Intern, social science rev. winfield. 1987 Vol. 62. No. 1. P. 3-7.
Mitchell P. Roots of the modernization experience in Japan // J. of Asian and African studies. Leiden, 1975. Vol. 10. N 3/4. P. 126-137.
Mizushima Sanichiro. Cultural and social background of the rapid modernization of Japan // Proc. of the Amer. philos. soc. Philadelphia. 1979 Vol. 123. No. 3. P. 164-167.
Nakamura Hajime. Suzuki Shosan, 1579-1655, and the spirit in Japanese Buddhism // Monumenta nipponica. Tokyo. 1967. N 1. P. 1-14.
Nishio Kanji. Japan "s parallel path to modernity // Japan epho. Tokyo. 1983. Vol. 10. N 1. P. 65-73.
Weber M. The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. N.Y. 1958. 258 p.
Published by edition: Japan in Comparative Sociocultural Studies. Part II / Ed. and resp. ed. M. N. Kornilov. M.: INION AN SSSR, 1990. (Series: Problems of modern Japan). pp. 21-38.
