The role of man in modern economy. In a modern market economy, a person performs a variety of economic functions.
As a living bearer of productive forces, a person has many attributive qualities and properties, a set of various needs and abilities. As an active creative subject of relations in the system of the modern economy, a person plays a multifunctional role. The human personality has a set of attributive qualities and properties that represent the productive forces of man.
In the structure of the latter, it is necessary to distinguish between two aspects: labor power, or the ability to work, and consumer power, or the ability to consume. Labor is a function of labor power, consumption is a function of consumer power. It is necessary to engage in the formation and development of both the ability to work and the ability to consume in a person.
When characterizing the role of a person in the system of the modern economy, a number of concepts are used: economic person, labor force, personal factor of production, labor resources, human resources, human capital, entrepreneur. An economic person is the main creative subject of a market economy who has freedom of choice and makes economically rational and optimal decisions, taking into account all available conditions, opportunities and information in accordance with his individual preferences, interests and goals.
The labor force is an individual ability to work, which is merged with the living personality of a person and acts as his most important attributive property. This ability to work is a productive ability only in potentiality. It becomes a real productive force in the process of direct connection with specific means of production, being included in the total labor force at a particular enterprise.
The personal factor of production is the productive force of joint labor, a certain cooperation of individual labor forces, that is, the total labor force in a certain socially combined form. The structure of the personal factor is determined by the structure and degree of concentration of production, the level of division of cooperation, and the specialization of labor. Each of the individual labor forces is developed to social required level in the process of vocational qualification training and functions as part of the total as a single labor force, as a public labor force. In fact, the individual labor force is an integral element of the total social labor force, and the individual labor of a person is an integral part of the integrated labor of society.
Labor resources - part of the country's population of working age, with the necessary physical and mental abilities, a certain level of education and qualifications to work in the national economy.
The number of labor resources characterizes the potential mass of living labor, which in this moment disposes society for the production of goods and services. Human resources are a resource of labor, which in a market economy is the most important factor of production. Labor services offered by people in the market are considered as human resources, usually when it comes to their interdependence and interchangeability with other types of natural, material, financial resources and their use in the competitive market of production factors. Human capital formed as a result of investments and accumulated by a person a certain amount of health, knowledge, skills, abilities, motivations that are expediently used in a particular area of social reproduction, contribute to the growth of labor productivity and production efficiency and thereby lead to an increase in the earnings of this person.
An entrepreneur is an active subject of a market economy, possessing all the necessary qualities to implement new combinations of resources and factors of production in order to create new goods and make a profit, operating in conditions of uncertainty and risk, and bearing responsibility for independently made decisions.
LABOR MARKET The labor market has a number of features. Its constituent elements are living people who act as carriers of the labor force and are endowed with such human qualities as psycho-physiological, social, cultural, religious, political and others.
These features have a significant impact on the interests, motivation, degree of labor activity of people and are reflected in the state of the labor market. The fundamental difference between labor and all other types of production resources is that it is a form of human life, the realization of his life goals and interests. That is why the price of labor is not just a kind of price for a resource, but the price standard of living social prestige, well-being of the employee and his family. Therefore, when analyzing the categories of the ore market, it is necessary to take into account the existence of human elements behind which there are living people. The labor market is the market for labor resources as a commodity, the equilibrium price and quantity of which are determined by the interaction of supply and demand.
Market agents represented by entrepreneurs and the able-bodied population enter into certain relationships in the labor market.
Therefore, the labor market is such an economic environment or space in which, as a result of competition between economic agents, a certain amount of employment and wages are established through the mechanism of supply and demand. The carrier of labor is a worker, which is a human person who has not only the ability to work, but also other qualities, motives for labor behavior, life experience, qualifications, and psychophysiological characteristics. Employers approach the hiring of labor in terms of the requirements for the profession and qualifications of the individual, assessing communication skills, the ability to work in a team, the ability to retrain, labor mobility of each individual employee.
The functions of the labor market are determined by the role of labor in the life of society, when labor is the most important source of income and welfare. From an economic point of view, labor is the most important production resource factor. In accordance with this, two main functions of the labor market are distinguished 1. The social function is to ensure a normal level of income and well-being of people, a normal level of reproduction of the productive abilities of workers. 2. The economic function of the labor market is the rational involvement, distribution, regulation and use of labor.
The labor market performs a number of stimulating functions that promote the development of competitiveness among its participants, increase interest in highly efficient work, improve skills and change professions.
The classical model of a competitive labor market is based on the following basic principles: a large number of employers, representing the interests of firms and expressing demand for labor, a large number of workers, who are carriers of the labor force and express supply. The behavior of subjects in the labor market is rational, due to the achievement of their own interests and benefits. There are no strict restrictions on free movement in the labor market for them. The jobs offered by employers and the labor force offered by employees are homogeneous.
The number and volume of employment is measured by the number of employees. The labor market is characterized by perfect competition, implemented through the mechanism of flexible market prices, when neither individual employers nor individual employees can influence the market situation as a whole; equilibrium wage rates do not depend on the behavior of individual firms or groups of employees, but are determined by the general conjuncture, i.e. e. the general interaction of all participants in the market process.
The classical model of the labor market has the following form Fig.1. In a competitive labor market, the demand curve for labor has a negative slope as the general level of wages rises, the demand for labor falls. The labor supply curve has a positive slope, with an increase in the general level of wages, the supply of labor increases. The horizontal axis is the number of employees F, the vertical wage W. Fig. 1. The demand for labor is determined by the needs of employers to hire a certain number of workers with the necessary qualifications for the production of goods and services, taking into account aggregate demand.
The supply of labor is determined by the needs of people of working age in the normal reproduction of their abilities and the maintenance of a sufficient level of well-being, taking into account the aggregate economic supply. Both demand and supply are formed under the influence of various factors of the prevailing level of prices, costs, wages, labor productivity, population, qualification and professional composition of workers, credit, financial, tax, legislative system, activities of trade unions, cultural, religious and other organizations.
At the point of intersection of D and S, the equilibrium price for labor, wages, W0 and a certain level of employment E0 are established. At a given level of wages in the economy there is full employment, the demand for labor is equal to the supply of labor.
If the wage level rises from W0 to W1, then the supply will increase, because an additional number of people will appear on the market who previously agreed to work for wages W0. The demand for labor will fall and unemployment will rise. If the wage level falls to W2, it becomes profitable for employers to hire additional workers, which increases the demand for labor. The supply will be reduced as a result of the fact that part of the workers will leave the market due to low wages.
As a result, demand will exceed supply and there will be a labor shortage. The demand for labor is derivative, like for any other resource, and depends on the level of wages. The price of labor wages depends on marginal productivity, i.e. the increase in output that is caused by the use of an additional unit of labor of a new worker, provided that other factors of production remain unchanged. The marginal productivity of labor is determined by the formula Q MPi, where J MPi is the marginal productivity of labor Q the increase in output caused by an additional unit of labor J an additional unit of labor.
This formula shows the increase in production per newly hired employee. The firm is interested not only in the amount of additional output produced by hiring an additional worker, but also in what income it will receive from the sale of the output created by an additional unit of labor. This can be determined by the formula for the marginal income from the product of labor R MRPi where J MRPi is the marginal income from the product of labor R is the increase in income caused by an additional unit of labor.
Practice shows that with an increase in the number of personnel and with the same equipment, the share of capital attributable to each employee begins to decline, which leads first to a decrease in the increase in production, then to a stabilization of its volume, and, finally, to an absolute decrease. Hence the task for the firm is to determine optimal number employed to maximize profits.
This dependence is called profit-maximizing employment and is determined by the formula MRPi W, where W is the wage rate. The supply of labor comes from temporarily unemployed workers. They are guided by the optimal distribution of their time between work and leisure. And this, in turn, depends on the magnitude of the utility that labor and leisure bring to a person. The growth of wages stimulates the worker to additional expenditure of his time only up to a certain limit.
The market demand for labor services is the sum of the volumes of demand for labor services from all industries at any price for these services. The main factors are the level of prices for labor services - the demand for products produced with the help of labor services - the prices and volumes of the offered resources of labor substitutes - technological changes affecting the marginal product of labor. The market supply of labor services is the sum of the volumes of supply of labor services of all workers at each possible price for these services.
The main factors are the number and willingness of workers to sell their labor to employers - the level of births, deaths and migration - the physical ability to be a worker - the opportunity cost of wage labor - the availability of other sources of income besides wages. Under conditions of perfect competition and market flexibility in wage rates, the deviation of wages from the equilibrium level cannot continue for a long time. An increase in wages relative to the equilibrium level causes a reduction in the demand for labor on the part of firms and, at the same time, an increase in the supply of labor on the part of workers.
As a result, there is an excess supply of labor, resulting in unemployment that puts pressure on wages in the direction of its decrease to the equilibrium level. If wages fall below this level, the opposite process unfolds. Ultimately, a competitive labor market is characterized by a general equilibrium in the demand for labor and an equilibrium level of wages.
The labor market can be characterized by monopsony and oligopsony. In this case, the supply side is represented by many workers, and the demand side is represented by a single or several employer firms. Wage rates in this case depend to a large extent on the decisions of the monopsonist firm. The labor market can be highly unionized due to the significant role of trade unions.
In this case, individual detachments of workers, organized into trade unions, in the process of collective action and the conclusion of collective agreements with employers that are beneficial to themselves, achieve an excess of the actual amount of wages over its equilibrium level. This leads in some cases to negative changes in the labor market. The exception is a monopsonistic labor market, where unions can achieve both wage and employment increases.
In most developed countries, minimum wages are set by law. The introduction of a minimum wage is aimed at reducing poverty and maintaining the well-being of the least skilled workers. However, this has an ambiguous and contradictory effect on the state of the labor market and employment in general. The subsistence minimum is the level of income necessary for a person to purchase food at the lower limit of physiological norms, as well as to satisfy at least the minimum needs for clothing, footwear, housing and transport services, and sanitation and hygiene items.
In today's labor market, the living wage actually serves only as the lowest wage limit. This circumstance is now clearly stipulated by the legislation of many countries, which directly determines the minimum wage and its obligation for all employers. It is necessary to distinguish between nominal and real wages. The nominal wage is the amount of money paid to the worker, and the real wage is the amount of goods that this worker can purchase with the money amount of wages paid to him at a given level of prices for goods.
The real wage is equal to the minimum wage paid to the worker in rubles divided by the price level. Factors determining wages 1. As you know, the employer strives for profit, and it is embodied in profit in the difference between the sale price of the product and the sum of all costs for its manufacture and sale.
Wages are always a significant part of production costs. We must not forget that the interests of the employer and the employee are opposite. With the same amount of proceeds from the sale of manufactured goods, an increase in wages means a reduction in the profit that the entrepreneur appropriates, and vice versa, an increase in profit leads to a reduction in wages. 2. Another contributing factor is labor productivity. Wage movements and changes in labor productivity are inextricably linked.
If the increase in productivity lags behind the increase in wages, efficiency falls and the profitability of production decreases. And vice versa, if the productivity of labor overtakes wages in its increase, production becomes more profitable and more profitable. Therefore, both for an individual enterprise and for the country as a whole, there is always an upper limit to the increase in wages, it is determined by the growth rate of labor productivity. 3. Quite often, the value of the average wage appears in statistical documents.
The average wage is just as inexpressive as the average worker. The point is that there are different kinds jobs, different qualifications, different working conditions. To induce people to do unattractive work, the wage rate is raised. Attractive types of work attract more applicants, in connection with which their wages are set at a lower level than required.
Possessing different abilities, different predispositions to acquire one or another qualification, and finally, talent, people cannot receive equal wages. 4. The factors that determine differences in wages include the level of education and training. And this is true, since, for example, doctors, lawyers, engineers invest a lot of effort and money in acquiring education, which can be called investments in human capital.
These investments bring future income. 5. Many wage differences arise from the existence of so-called non-competing groups. It is difficult and practically impossible for a representative of one profession to enter another group of workers. Workers, on the other hand, change professions with less loss, so they can move from one group to another, which leads to an equilibrium system of wage differences among different categories of workers. Wage differences between population groups will always exist.
But often they arise because of such characteristics that nationality, gender, religion have nothing to do with the labor process. These phenomena already belong to another system of assessments called discrimination. In reality, there is no single abstract labor market in which absolutely all employee firms would participate. The labor market in its integral unity consists of a number of local labor markets, segments, sectors, characterized by regional, sectoral characteristics, the role of professional groups, qualification groups, gender, age, national and other differences.
Changes in the level of wages under the influence of fluctuations in supply and demand occur in local markets, segments, taking into account specific conditions and have a special dynamics. In the labor market, there is a massive movement of labor force, its quantitative and qualitative composition is constantly changing.
At the same time, the demand for labor is constantly changing, since the expansion of production, its modernization, structural changes require special highly qualified training of workers, the development of new modern professions. At any given moment, there is a mismatch between the demand and supply of skilled labor. In the most general form, there are two main segments: the market for primary independent and subordinate jobs and the market for secondary jobs. The first segment of primary jobs is occupied by workers with higher and secondary specialized education, administrative and managerial personnel, and highly skilled workers.
These are the highest paid groups, whose employment is stable and guaranteed. The first segment of primary subordinate jobs is occupied by workers of medium qualification, administrative and auxiliary personnel, engineering and technical workers. This group enjoys relatively high wages and certain job security.
The second segment, consisting of secondary jobs, does not require special training and high qualifications. It includes unskilled workers, service workers, lower categories of employees. One of the factors that determine the new nature of the segmentation and structure of the labor force in modern conditions are structural shifts in the economy. In the conditions of modern scientific and technological progress, a new type of labor market segmentation is being formed and developed, which covers fast-growing knowledge-intensive industries and services with a mixed labor force in terms of vocational and qualifications, and also includes those employed in traditional sectors of the economy.
There is also a regional segmentation of the labor market, which takes into account the peculiarities of the composition of the labor force in individual regions. These features are due to the socio-demographic structure of the population, the professional and qualification structure of the labor force, national composition, etc. In the structure of the labor market, at least five main segments can be distinguished.
First, a relatively small, but stable group of highly professional senior managers. Secondly, highly skilled workers and employees. Thirdly, workers in those industries that are subject to structural adjustment and reduction in production. Fourth, workers in labor-intensive industries with low level labor productivity, including the service sector.
Fifth, the most vulnerable categories of workers are young people, the elderly, people with physical and mental disabilities, people who have lost hope of finding a job, and others. The labor market is a competitive market. Due to the extreme complexity of its structural and functional organization, there is always a certain discrepancy between jobs and labor resources. Part of the jobs that require high qualifications for their replacement remains unoccupied, and a part of people who do not have the necessary special training cannot find work.
In such a situation, competition arises not only between the unemployed to get at least some work, but also competition between highly skilled workers and specialists for a more profitable application of their labor with higher earnings. There is also competition between entrepreneurs to attract the most experienced and highly qualified specialists to the firm. They are attracted by setting a higher price of labor wages, thereby affecting the demand for labor. At the same time, only the demand for certain categories of highly qualified specialists is growing, while the overall demand for labor may remain unchanged or even decrease.
Such demand can be defined as selective, or segmental, since it concerns a certain group, a group of workers with the necessary qualifications. An example of such demand is the sharp increase in the need for specialist programmers and systems analysts in the 1980s in the United States. Such fragmented, selective action in the labor market is characteristic not only of demand, but also of supply.
An example is a significant increase in the supply of labor during seasonal agricultural work. Competition is also differentiated and selective, since it manifests itself within a certain segment and stimulates the activity of economic agents in it.
In the labor market, competition serves to coordinate the actions of economic agents that form, respectively, the demand and supply for labor within a certain segment through the price mechanism of wages. The labor market is a dynamic market, all structural and functional components of which are extremely mobile. This applies to demand, supply, labor costs, large segments and small sectors, certain categories of workers and individual economic agents.
On the labor market, between its various substructures on a large scale and quite dynamically, there is a continuous circulation of large, medium and small contingents of human resources, a significant number of workers are constantly included in the economically active population, leave it, find employment and after some time resign, then join the labor market. search next work etc. Consequently, certain flows are formed in the labor market, leaving the labor force, entering the labor force, those who have refused to look for work, who have lost their jobs, who have finished working, who have learned work, etc. The mobility of these flows characterizes the market dynamics of the labor force in society.
End of work -
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In a modern market economy, a person performs a variety of economic functions. As a living bearer of productive forces, a person has many attributive qualities and properties, a set of various needs and abilities. As an active creative subject of relations in the system of the modern economy, a person plays a multifunctional role.
The human personality has a set of attributive qualities and properties that represent the productive forces of man. In the structure of the latter, it is necessary to distinguish between two aspects: labor power, or the ability to work, and consumer power, or the ability to consume. Labor is a function of labor power, consumption is a function of consumer power.
It is necessary to engage in the formation and development of both the ability to work and the ability to consume in a person. When characterizing the role of a person in the system of the modern economy, a number of concepts are used: economic man, labor force, personal factor of production, labor resources, human resources, human capital, entrepreneur.
An economic person is the main creative subject of a market economy who has freedom of choice and makes economically rational and optimal decisions, taking into account all available conditions, opportunities and information in accordance with his individual preferences, interests and goals.
Labor force is an individual ability to work, which is merged with the living personality of a person and acts as his most important attributive property. This ability to work is a productive ability only in potentiality. It becomes a real productive force in the process of direct connection with specific means of production, being included in the total labor force at a particular enterprise.
The personal factor of production is the productive force of joint labour, a certain cooperation of individual labor forces, i.e., the total labor force in a definite, socially combined form. The structure of the personal factor is determined by the structure and degree of concentration of production, the level of division of cooperation, and the specialization of labor.
Each of the individual labor forces has been developed to a socially necessary level in the process of vocational training and functions as part of the total as a single labor force, as a social average labor force. In fact, the individual labor force is an integral element of the total social labor force, and the individual labor of a person is an integral part of the integrated labor of society.
Labor resources - part of the country's population of working age, with the necessary physical and mental abilities, a certain level of education and qualifications to work in the national economy. The number of labor resources characterizes the potential mass of living labor, which society currently has for the production of goods and services.
Human resources are a resource of labor, which in a market economy is the most important factor of production. Labor services offered by people in the market are usually considered as human resources when it comes to their interdependence and interchangeability with other types of resources (natural, material, financial) and their use in the competitive market for factors of production.
Human capital is a certain stock of health, knowledge, skills, abilities, motivations formed as a result of investments and accumulated by a person, which are expediently used in a particular area of social reproduction, contribute to the growth of labor productivity and production efficiency and thereby lead to an increase in the earnings of this person.
An entrepreneur is an active subject of a market economy, possessing all the necessary qualities to implement new combinations of resources and factors of production in order to create new goods and make a profit, operating under conditions of uncertainty and risk, and bearing responsibility for independently made decisions.
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Coursework on the topic
"The role of man in the modern economy"
"Macroeconomics"
INTRODUCTION
This term paper, the topic "The role of man in the modern economy" was taken, as it is the most relevant today. Man plays a huge role in the modern economy. Many scientists and economists considered and studied the importance of a person in the economic space, which undoubtedly made important economic discoveries. Man cannot be underestimated as part of the constituent concept of the economy, he is in fact its creator. Depending on today's human needs, the economy moves in one direction or another and develops. Separately, it is necessary to note the importance of the concept and role of "human capital". Depending on the level of education, contributions to the development and support of this capital, a country can claim one or another place in the world economy.
Of course, no country can be considered a great power without having highly qualified personnel and the environment for their successful work. By investing and motivating people to increase (accumulate) human capital, the country provides itself the best place among other countries. Having delved a little into history, let us recall the place of Russia among other countries, during the times of the USSR. Our education was considered the best in the whole world, and the scientific discoveries made in those days are still important to this day.
The purpose of this course work is to consider and analyze the role of man in the modern economy.
In accordance with the goal, the following main tasks were solved:
to study the methodological foundations of the concept of human capital;
to study the main dimensions of a person in the modern economic space;
consider the role of human capital in the Russian Federation
Research methods:
processing and analysis of scientific sources;
analysis of scientific literature, textbooks and manuals on the problem under study.
The object of research is a person, human capital.
METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN CAPITAL
1.1 Historical aspects of the study of human capital
The national wealth of a country is a complex of accumulated capital: financial, national, physical and human, as well as the natural capital of the country.
The composition of the national human capital includes not only national components, but also individual, corporate human capital, as well as the human capital of households.
National human capital is formed through contributions to health, professional development, upbringing, culture, education, healthcare, information support, science and art, and much more.
Human capital can not only accumulate, but also materially and morally wear out.
Previously, once education and upbringing were considered not particularly necessary in the economy, a costly burden. But later, economists began to realize the importance of these factors. The main factor in the growth and development of the economy has become such components as: science, education, people's health, culture, human capital in general. The main aspect, the core, of human capital, of course, is a person. Nowadays, human capital determines most of the national wealth of a country, as well as regions, municipalities and enterprises. Moreover, this share can be calculated in any monetary currency. The main thing in human capital is investment in a person, in his health, education, court of habitation, labor activity and, of course, the return on them. Simple labor is important, but at the moment it cannot determine the development of the economy, in developed countries extensive factors have already exhausted themselves.
Therefore, in the composition of national wealth, human capital rightfully occupies the first position. If there are professionals in a country (or organization), then in the conditions of the global economy, money (i.e., financial capital) will necessarily appear, and hence the physical capital of the means of production.
A very complex and intensive productive factor contributing to the development of the economy is human capital. Labor resources, tools of intellectual and organizational work, habitat, knowledge - all this is included in its concept, and it also ensures the efficient and rational operation of the productive factor of development.
Briefly: Human capital is professionals, intelligence, knowledge, high-quality and highly productive work and a high quality of life.
For the first time, the concept of human capital appeared in the publications of the second half of the twentieth century in the works of American economists Theodore Schulz and Gary Becker. For creating the foundations of the theory of human capital, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics - Theodor Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. Our Simon (Semyon) Kuznets also made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of human capital, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1971.
However, in my work I would like to become more deeply acquainted with the work of Becker, since today his work “human capital” is a classic for economic thought. Although a huge help in promoting the idea of human capital was provided by his colleague at the University of Chicago, T. Schultz. His development of the microeconomic fundamentals of this theory is the fundamental work of Becker. For all subsequent studies, this model will be the main one.
The concept of human capital is a set of skills, a stock of knowledge and motivations available to each person. Its main feature is inseparability from the personality of the person himself, in contrast to physical capital. Since in modern society such concepts as “serfdom” and “slave ownership” have long been forgotten and exist only in the pages of history textbooks, there are no direct markets for human capital and no monetary prices are set for it. However, in societies there is such a type of transactions with human capital as “rental”, that is, hiring is carried out for some limited period of time, where wages are “ rent» for the use of other people's human capital in their own needs.
The main and most important contribution to human capital is the accumulation of production experience, education, health care and the search for information. The costs of its formation are investments, since they involve the transfer of resources from the present to the future, where the investor is, for example, a student who sacrifices part of his income today for the sake of tomorrow's higher income.
For Becker, the starting point was the idea that when spending their money on training and education, parents and their children, calculating in advance the benefits and costs, behave more than rationally, they, like ordinary entrepreneurs, assume how much they will return from these investments with profitability. other investments. And depending on what is economically better for the family, a decision is made whether it is worth continuing education or whether it would be more expedient to stop it.
Also, Becker, in addition to theory, was the first to calculate the economic efficiency of education. He got the difference between the lifetime income of people who graduated from college and those who did not go beyond high school by subtracting the second from the first. The cost of education was mainly income that they did not receive during their years of study - "lost earnings". Lost earnings are the value of the time students spend building their human capital. Comparison of benefits and costs allows you to calculate the profitability of a person's investment. Becker found that in the United States, people with college degrees earn 10 to 15 percent more income. Which confirmed his judgment about the correctness of the behavior of parents and their children.
Of great importance to the theory was the distinction between general as well as specific contributions to man, and even resources. Unique training provides workers with skills and knowledge, but is of interest only to one firm, the one where they were acquired, such as familiarizing new workers with the routine within the enterprise. And in the course of general training, a person acquires skills and knowledge that may be of interest to many other companies, such as learning to work on a personal computer. Becker proved that general training is partially (indirectly) paid by the employee himself, since the employee, wanting to improve his qualifications, agrees to a training period with lower wages, thereby paying for it. It is not profitable for firms to independently pay for the training of their employees, since if such a worker is fired, they would lose their contributions to their personality (human capital). On the contrary, special training, in contrast to general training, is paid for by firms, and they also receive income from it, because now, when dismissed at the initiative of firms, the employees themselves bear the losses.
It was this distinction between resources that later formed the basis of modern theory of the firm. The firm in this theory is defined as a coalition of "mutually specific resources", that is, those resources that cannot be readily replaced in the market and which in tandem produce more than in combination with any other resources. For example, one person worked for many years at one enterprise and accumulated large stock specific human capital, he cannot count on the same high wages in other firms, but for his firm he is already more valuable than a newcomer who can take his place. The concept of “specific human capital” helps to understand why vacancies in firms are mostly filled through internal promotions, and not through hiring in the external labor market.
It can be said without a doubt that the concept of "Human capital" has made a real revolution in the labor economy. Let's highlight the three most important aspects: the transition from current indicators to indicators covering the entire life cycle; highlighting "capital", investment aspects in the behavior of agents in the labor market; recognition of human time as the main resource of the economy. The structure of the distribution of personal income, inequality in the pay of male and female labor, the age dynamics of earnings, and much more have been explained within the framework of the theory of human capital. Thanks to this theory, the attitude of politicians towards the cost of education has changed, now investment in education is seen as a source of economic growth, as important as ordinary capital investment.
Continuing to explore the problem of human capital, Becker formulated a simple and universal model for the distribution of personal income. To do this, he used the apparatus of supply and demand curves for investment in human capital. He deduced an individual demand curve for investments in education, showing the level of return, has a negative slope: long-term training is accompanied by increasing loads, both intellectual and physical, i.e. the more a student has accumulated human capital, the more expensive it is for him to lose earnings; late investments bring income faster; the more one invests, the more the risk increases. However, there is a countertrend, in a certain area it can change the slope of the curve to positive, because it is the education received that makes a person not only a more efficient and useful worker, but a more effective student, and, therefore, facilitates and accelerates the accumulation of new knowledge. From this we can conclude that the more gifted a person is, the higher the demand curve is, i.e. at the same cost, a more gifted person is able to acquire a much greater amount of knowledge and skills.
The supply curve shows how much it costs to finance an additional unit of human capital and has a negative slope. The rational investor moves from the most inexpensive financial sources (from the funds of parents, relatives, on which the interest is zero) to the more expensive ones (to soft loans from universities and colleges, and finally to bank loans). The greater the financial ability and the student, the lower his supply curve will be.
Inequality in the distribution of human capital, and hence earnings, can be not only on the demand side, but also on the supply side. As Becker showed, scatter in demand curves will only lead to deeper inequality than in supply curves. But the most uneven earnings will be if there is a "long" correlation between these curves, when children from more affluent families will also have better abilities.
It is also important that the model proposed by Becker covers not only inequality from labor incomes, i.e. human capital, but also property, i.e. from those received as a gift or by inheritance, as well as acquired other assets.
When investing in a person, the return on average will be much higher than from investments in physical capital, but in the case of human capital, it will decrease with an increase in the volume of investments, while physical capital - real estate, securities, bank deposits, etc. will decrease little or not change at all. Therefore, the strategy of rational families is as follows: first, investments are made in the human capital of children, since the return on it is relatively higher, and then, when they equal the rate of return of other assets, they switch to investing in them in order to subsequently transfer them to children as a gift or in the form of an inheritance. Based on this, Becker deduced an important pattern: families that leave children an inheritance make optimal investments in the human capital of their children, while families that do not leave inheritance, for the most part, invest more in the education of their children.
1.2 The place of a person in the modern economic space
Today, a person performs a variety of economic functions. He, being a living carrier of productive forces, has many attributive properties and qualities, has a set of various abilities and needs. Being a creative subject of relations in the system of the (modern) economy familiar to us, it plays a multifunctional role. It is the human personality that has the qualities and properties, which are understood as the productive forces of man. There are two sides in the structure of productive forces: consumer power (the ability to consume) and labor power (the ability to work). Consumption is a function of consumer power, and labor is a function of labor power, it is necessary to develop these functions in a person. In order to characterize the role of man in the modern economy, a number of concepts are used: labor force, human resources, labor resources, economic man, entrepreneur, human capital.
1.Labor force is a person's ability to work, as well as the totality of a person's physical and intellectual abilities. The ability to work is one of the most important attributive qualities of a person, this ability can be productive only in potential, it becomes real only at the moment of connection with other, specific, means of production, being applied to the general labor force at any enterprise. The labor force cannot exist without a person (employee), so the state of his psyche, health, level of his intellectual development, education and professional knowledge, as well as social qualities (discipline, contact, responsibility, attitude to work, and many others) - all this defined by the concept of labor force. 2.Human resources are labor resources, they are the most important factors of production in a market economy. Labor resources that are offered by people in the labor market can be considered as human resources only when they are interconnected with other types of resources (for example: material, natural or financial), as well as if they can be used in the market for factors of production. .Labor resources are that part of the country's population that has reached working age and has the necessary mental and physical abilities, as well as a certain level of education and qualifications to work in the national economy. With the exception of war and labor invalids of groups I and II and non-working persons receiving pensions for preferential terms, working persons of retirement age and working teenagers under the age of 16 years. .An economic person is the main creative subject of a market economy who has freedom of choice and makes economically rational and optimal decisions, taking into account all available conditions, opportunities and information in accordance with all individual preferences, interests and goals. .Entrepreneur - an entrepreneur is an active subject of a market economy, having all the necessary qualities for the implementation of new combinations of resources and factors of production. They pursue the goal of creating a new product and making a profit from it, acting in conditions of uncertainty and risk. He is responsible for his own decisions. .Human capital is a stock of knowledge, health, skills and abilities accumulated by a person over a lifetime, as well as motivations that a person uses in a particular area of social reproduction, contributing to production efficiency and labor productivity growth and thus contributing to the growth of earnings of this person. quality human capital economic BASES OF HUMAN MEASUREMENT IN THE MODERN ECONOMIC SPACE 1 Qualities of people The qualities that a person possesses carry much more than good or bad. The presence of certain qualities may indicate a person's ability to develop, work capacity, and even the quality of his future life. For example, interviews in large companies take place in several stages. First, the applicant talks with an employee of the personnel service, then, if this stage is completed successfully, he goes to the head of the department in which he is going to work, and the final stage is a meeting with the owner of the company, whom he decides during the interview and data analysis whether this candidate is suitable for this position or not. When considering candidates, the CEO or President of the company makes a decision based on the following qualities of the candidate: Proactivity. Being a proactive person means being aware of your deepest values and goals and acting in accordance with your life principles, regardless of conditions and circumstances. One of the well-known researchers of human efficiency Stephen Covey believes that proactivity is the main quality a person needs for success in life and business. It is important to distinguish between proactivity and activity, you can take actions in a day and do not bring any benefit, and, on the contrary, by taking a few conscious and important actions, you bring your goal closer with the greatest speed. Professionalism. This quality is made up of the knowledge gained in universities, as well as from work experience in a particular field. A professional is always immediately visible, he speaks confidently, clearly and with inspiration about his work. A modern employer prefers to hire those professionals who truly love their work and consider it their mission. Sociability. Willingness and ability to communicate with other people is half the success. Free, easy, and most importantly constructive communication - that's what all employers want without exception. Do not confuse sociability with talkativeness. The first quality leads to the productive work of the team. Talkativeness, on the other hand, distracts people from work and brings damage to the entire company. Adequacy of perception. The main problem of most managers is that their subordinates, in their opinion, do not correctly understand their instructions and, accordingly, the result is not as expected. If at an interview with CEO a person will be able to show himself as a person who knows how to listen and hear, then this is already 20% of success. Honesty. It would seem that a very simple concept, but to be honest not in theory, but in life is very difficult. Honesty is the ability to admit your mistakes, the ability to appreciate that someone has done better than you. Honesty is the willingness to take 100% responsibility, and if necessary, ask for help from colleagues or superiors in time. Intuitiveness. In modern business, the term "intuitive management" is increasingly used. Intuition, quality necessary modern man if he managed to develop it, then most of his personal and business decisions will be correct, which means that they will benefit the company. Business owners appreciate having a sixth sense in their employees. Stress resistance. This is a person’s ability to overcome difficulties, understand a person’s mood, suppress their emotions, while showing restraint and tact. Stress resistance is understood as a set of personal qualities that allow a person to endure significant emotional, volitional and intellectual stress, due to the characteristics of his professional activity, without any harmful consequences for his health, those around him and the activity itself. Learnability - the ability to master new, including educational, material, new activities. Purposefulness is the ability to organize one's actions in order to achieve the set goal. Punctuality is a character trait of a person, implying extreme accuracy, systematic adherence to the rules. Self-control is the awareness and evaluation by the subject of his own actions, mental processes and states. Efficiency is the potential ability of a person to perform an appropriate activity at a given level of efficiency for a certain time. All these qualities not only help a person in finding a job, but also contribute to improving the quality of his future life. 2.2 Differentiation of the composition of employees The personnel policy of a firm may be equal in relation to all employees, or it may be very “selective” in relation to groups and labor markets. Purposeful policies are usually differentiated. Most often, differentiation is made along the axis of the job ladder and, depending on the length of service in the company. There are organizations that create a “special fund” of employees, which can be accessed due to their professional achievements, such a fund has a special relationship, that is, privileges and special measures that motivate employees to work in this organization. The rest of the employees have a rather rigid administrative attitude. By its socio-economic nature, a person is an object of social life, he participates in productive activity as its multifaceted subject: · biological - (each person is individual) the structure of the body and physical health; · social - a member of a certain group (family-related, demographic, ethnic, etc.); · class - hired worker or owner; · political - citizen of the state, voter, member political party, trade union, other interest groups; · legal - the owner of certain rights and obligations; · cultural - the bearer of a certain mentality, value system, cultural norms and traditions; · moral - sharing certain moral norms and value orientations. Since the human factor is complex and multifaceted, it is not possible to unambiguously determine the subject of management, which is also an element of the personnel management system. In modern literature, the following characteristics are used (some of them were previously considered): Work force; Labor resources; In some organizations, the concept of "staff" is used. For the first time, this term began to be used in English-language literature, implying the name of all employees of the organization, regardless of qualifications and job affiliation. The term "cadres" was widely used in our country. This word came to us from the army lexicon, as professional soldiers are called in German and French. Definition of "staff": Personnel are people with their personal problems, interacting in a rather traumatic and repressive spatial and temporal regime, which often enhances personal neurotic symptoms, complementing it with a collective one. Therefore, when managing them, the whole complex of individual qualities inherent in employees, social, psychological, professional, motivational, and so on, should be taken into account. The concept of "human resources" appeared due to a rethinking of the role and place of a person in an organization in the conditions of the modern economy, a change in attitude towards him - if earlier he was only an "animated" factor of production, but also as a person with traits and interests inherent only to her. In the science and practice of sociology, economics and management, since the 80s of the 20th century, the term “labor potential” of a society or an individual worker has also been used. This is a more versatile concept, its main term is “potential”, that is, a source of opportunities and means. The concept of the labor potential of an employee includes a combination of physical and spiritual qualities of a person, which make it possible to understand the possibility and limits of his participation in labor activity, the ability to achieve certain results under given conditions, and also to improve in the labor process. When labor potential is realized, it forms human capital. People cannot be manipulated like inanimate objects, so the personnel of an organization as a factor of production cannot be equated with other factors of production. The relations of people in the process of work can not only affect the quality of work, but also carry a certain set of projections and transfers. This is complicated by the significant problem of personal self-determination. In this regard, the employee of the organization is a special factor of production, the specific characteristics of which must be taken into account in management. These characteristics include: · for employees endowed with intelligence, the reaction is meaningful, which means that the process of interaction between them and the organization is two-way; · since the working life of workers is quite long, about 30-40 years, then labor relations can be of a long-term nature; · getting a job in a certain organization, employees set goals for themselves and expect help from this organization in achieving these goals; · workers have the right to refuse working conditions, quit the organization, protest about working conditions; · workers can improve their competence and efficiency; · workers are socially heterogeneous. The presence of labor relations with the employer - the main sign of the organization's personnel - is formalized by an employment contract. However, there are such persons or groups of persons who are not the personnel of the organization, but actively participate in its effective functioning. For example, shareholders who do not work in this organization, the board of directors, which is fully responsible for its activities and management decisions, etc. The main characteristics of the organization's personnel are the number and structure. The classification of personnel from various positions can be considered in table 1. Table 1 - Classification of the organization's personnel Classification featurePersonnel characteristicsPersonnel classificationAttitude to ownershipThe classification is based on the employee's shares, assets, etc. Company owners Employees Co-ownersClassification of personnel by number and terms of work in the organizationGeneral need for personnelNumber of employees who have labor relations with the organization, which depends on the nature, complexity , labor intensity of production, maintenance, management processes and the degree of their mechanization, automation, computerization Qualitative need - the required number of employees based on professions, specialties and skill levels. Quantitative need - the required number of employees based on the qualitative need, ensuring the optimal performance of work of a certain quality and quantity , busy with the performance of public duties, and so on. The difference between the payroll and attendance of personnel is approximately 10-15% The attendance of personnel includes all employees who came to work Calculated by summing the payroll for all days of a certain period (month, quarter, year including weekends and holidays ) and dividing the result by the number of calendar days of the month, quarter, year The average number of employees is the average number of employees for a certain period of time The number of employees of the organization, which is based on the period of work indication of the term of work Temporary - these are employees who went to work, indicating the term of work Seasonal - these are employees who went to seasonal work Classification of personnel according to quality characteristics By participation in production and management processes (industrial and production personnel) organizations and his deputies Middle level - heads of structural divisions and chief specialists Grassroots level - heads of bureaus, sectors, foremenEmployees who perform specialized functionsSpecialists - employees who perform economic, engineering, legal, marketing and other specialized functionsEmployees who perform office functionsTechnical performers - employees who prepare, prepare documents, record, control and manage servicesEmployees who directly create material values or provide production servicesKey employeesEmployees who ensure an uninterrupted production processAuxiliary workersNon-industrial personnelEmployees who provide social services to employees of the organization Social infrastructure workersClassification of personnel by structure Professional structure The ratio of representatives of various professions or specialties who have a set of theoretical knowledge and practical skills acquired as a result of training and work experience in a particular field. Economists, accountants, engineers, lawyers, etc. Qualification structure The ratio of workers of different skill levels (i.e. degree of professional training) necessary to perform certain labor functions Specialist of the first, second category Worker of the first, second, third category Driver of category A, B, C, and so on. , 21-30, etc. Structure by length of service Correlation of groups of personnel by length of service in a given organization and total length of service Total length of service Length of service in a given Organization Structure by level of education Determines the level of education of employees incomplete higher education; Specialized secondary; secondary general education; Incomplete secondary education; Elementary education The subjects of personnel management in an organization can be: ) line management personnel, he manages subordinate units and teams; ) functional staff - performs individual functions (hiring, staff development, etc.); ) various associations of workers (trade unions, design and expert groups, etc.); ) sometimes there are "informal leaders" in organizations The effectiveness of managing the activities of individuals, organizations and groups is also considered an element of the personnel system and helps to build it rationally. There are three types of efficiency - the effectiveness of organizations, groups and personnel. The base level is individual efficiency, it reflects the level and quality of tasks performed by a specific employee of the organization. Evaluate individual performance against metrics that are the basis for salary increases, career advancement, and many other incentives offered by the organization. Usually, employees do not work alone, but work in groups, which gives rise to the concept of “group efficiency”. In some cases, group efficiency is simply the sum of the contributions of all group members, while in others it is more a consequence of the correlation of joint actions. The concept of "organizational effectiveness" includes both group and individual, however, organizational will be higher than the sum of these two components. At the same time, they are interconnected with each other - group efficiency strongly depends on the individual, and organizational - on the group. Exact correlations between types of efficiency can only be given in the case of specific organizations, since everything depends on the type of activity, the nature of the work performed and the technologies used. The task of management is to identify opportunities to improve organizational, group and individual efficiency. To date, there are a significant number of cost-benefit ratios, and the manager, when evaluating efficiency, is obliged to consider a set of reasons and obligations, and to derive methods for evaluating efficiency. Management uses various methods for evaluating performance (targeted, systematic, multi-parametric), so the task of management is to use, depending on the circumstances, the most appropriate approach for the organization. THE ROLE OF HUMAN CAPITAL IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION The development of human capital depends on the quality of life and the business climate, while at the same time, the growth in the quality of life of the population determines consumer demand as a development factor, and the investment or business climate determines investment demand. Human capital develops according to the following components: · the mentality of the population; · quality and work ethics; · quality and business ethics; · quality, creative activity and efficiency of the elite; · educational potential; · people's health; · knowledge; · the quality of the accumulated knowledge; · Innovation potential; · quality of life and conditions for the realization of personality. The basis for the growth of the level and quality of human capital (its competitiveness at the global level) is the culture and mentality of the nation, the formation of which was significantly influenced by the main national religion. Mentality reflects the influence of human capital accumulated over the centuries on the character of the people, on the attitude to work, determines the internal energy of the nation. The main wealth of our country is natural resources, that is: oil, gas, and so on, today all the natural resources of our country are used and they all generate income, capitalization growth and taxes. It's harder with people. In many respects, the population of Russia is a unique resource. Our literacy rate is the highest in the world. The enrollment rate of secondary education is the highest in the world. About 85% of the population has higher than secondary education (and if you look at the indicators among the economically active population under 60, the picture here is completely unique - almost 95%). For comparison, I will give several countries as an example: In Germany, the country with the most high level education in the EU, this figure is 78%, in the UK - 76%, in Spain it is noticeably less - 50%. The average skill level of workers and specialists is one of the highest in the world. Moreover, including in those segments of the economy that are commonly called post-industrial. The strategy for the development of human capital in our country is presented by the Government of the Russian Federation within the framework of the most priority national projects in the field of healthcare, housing, education of the population and development of the agro-industrial complex. The purpose of these projects is to develop human capital and improve the quality of life of citizens of the Russian Federation. The economy of the Russian Federation belongs in its type to the industrial raw materials economy. The transition to a new quality economy is caused by the actual non-competitiveness of this type economic development, but for the transition to a post-industrial economy, to an innovative economy or a knowledge economy, appropriate human capital is needed High Quality and in sufficient quantity. The presence of high quality human capital of its market components is a necessary and sufficient condition for creating an effective innovative economy. CONCLUSION The development of human capital, the improvement of the living environment is necessary for the progressive development of the country and its economy. Man, as the creator and consumer of production goods, is an integral part of the economy. By paying special attention to people and human capital, a country can bring itself to a new, better economic level. An example of this would be South Korea. A country that does not have natural resources, actively invests in human capital, and for several decades has been able to take a good place in the global economy. Improving the education sector, sending the population to study abroad, attracting foreigners to study the Korean language, and also bring their companies to the light, for example, the notorious SAMSUNG. What happened in this country is what many economists call an "economic miracle." Human capital can really work wonders, both help and destroy a country with its entire population. It is very important to understand this. Also, an increase in the level of education in any country will bring social benefits - the unemployment rate decreases, the layer of wealthy people increases, and, consequently, the crime rate caused by poverty and poverty decreases. The increase in human capital has only benefits and advantages, therefore any country, or rather the government of the country, should maximize and increase the level and contributions to the development of human capital. LIST OF USED SOURCES 1Balikoev VZ Obshchaya ekonomicheskaya teoriya: ucheb. For students enrolled in economic specialties /V. Z. Balikoev. -11th ed., ster. -M.: Omega -L; 2011. -732 p. 2Bogomazov GG History of economics and economic thought in Russia / ed. ed. G. G. Bogomazova. -
1.2 Institutional environment of organizations: characteristics and levels of regulation. 1.3 Role...
...empirical analysis of the formation by the state of the institutional environment in the modern Russian economy for the functioning of business.
