Indonesia Indonesia will certainly please you. The wonderful beaches of Bali are one of a kind, white sand blinds your eyes, the turquoise-emerald expanse of the sea beckons, the noise of cypress thickets soothes, and the sun seems to be right above your head. Holidays in Indonesia are not cheap, but hotels and a high level of service are one hundred percent worth it.
Amazing and beautiful Indonesia.
One of the countries of Southeast Asia. The Republic of Indonesia ranks first in terms of area among the island states, it belongs to the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The borders of Indonesia are in contact with the lands of Malaysia and Papua New Guinea. The area of the state is 1904.5 thousand km2. The population exceeds 230 4 million inhabitants. The capital of Indonesia is Jakarta, the most beautiful place. Other places most visited by tourists include Surabaya, Bandung.
Holidays on the beaches of Indonesia.
Holidays in this country can become the way you want to see it. Here, equally successfully, there is a calm beach holiday, many types of outdoor activities, in recent years, the direction of ecological tourism has been developing more and more actively, tourists can observe the life of animals in the archipelago for a long time and arrange hikes of any complexity. Indonesia gives its guests the opportunity to choose their own type of vacation, so there are endless possibilities for your imagination.
Tourist tours in this direction are becoming more popular every year. This country has something to surprise and seasoned tourist who have seen a lot, and a couple of lovers who, having come here, will believe that there is heaven on earth.
Climate of Indonesia
Equatorial Marine. On the islands of Indonesia, almost every day is sunny and this is 365 days a year. The average air temperature in Indonesia is in the range of +27 C. When winter begins in the Southern Hemisphere, there is practically no rain in the Indonesian regions. At this time, the influx of visiting tourists is increasing.
Landmarks of Indonesian land
On the territory of the Indonesian archipelago there are large nature reserves. For example, the Gugung-Leser reserve is the country's largest customer, it is valued for its unique collection of representatives of the fauna of Indonesia, and it is also the custodian of the natural landscape formations of North Sumatra. Another amazing customer is Komodo. This reserve occupied the entire territory of Komodo Island. Real dragons live here this moment these reptiles are the largest on the planet. The third major reserve, Bali Barat, has preserved a huge abundance of exotic plants and animals that live on lands of 20 thousand hectares.
On one of the islands (Borneo), even today primitive settlements of Dayaks lead their lives. Tourists can see the “river city” of Pontianak with their own eyes. There is something to see here, in addition to the unusual clothes of the inhabitants of the tribe from the traditions, you will see houseboats, a wooden mosque and beautiful canals. The island of Samosir has preserved not only the tombs, but also the royal bedchambers. There is also a working crocodile farm, the most beautiful palace of Istana Maimun. Bali has also become a concentration of parks. Nowhere else can you visit the Bird Park and the Butterfly Park. Here nature becomes closer, rest is bright and easy.
To appreciate all the greatness of Indonesia, you will need to make a trip to the island of Java, where the most old City and at the same time the capital of the state - Jakarta. The city is decorated with a palace complex, which dates back to the 18th century, this is the Sultan's Kraton, as well as Taman-Sari - "water deputy". An attractive place for tourists is Lara-Jonggrang. The construction of these temple buildings dates back to the beginning of the 10th century. It is impossible to comprehend the richness of culture and historical heritage in one trip.
Category:PAGE_BREAK--The average population density is 132 people/V. km. The distribution of the population is uneven. For example, on the islands of Java and Madura, occupying approx. 7% of the area of Indonesia, lives over 70% of all inhabitants of the country. The population density here is approx. 916 people/in. km. (in some places it reaches 1500–2500 people/V. km.). The opposite picture is observed on about. New Guinea: here, on 22% of the territory of Indonesia, only 1% of its inhabitants are concentrated (5.3 people / V. km). The island of Kalimantan, covered with tropical rain forests, also belongs to the sparsely populated areas of Indonesia. Its population density (approx. 11,331 thousand in 2000) was 20.7 persons/W. km. In Java, agriculture is reduced mainly to work in the flood fields (savakhs), where rice is grown. In Kalimantan, the slash-and-burn system of agriculture (ladang) is mainly used, in which semi-nomadic tribes cut down and burn young tree growth. From such non-flooded lands, it is possible to harvest for several years, and then these areas are abandoned for several years and new ones are developed in the same way. Flood fields are used continuously.
C) urbanization. In Indonesia, there is a trend towards an accelerated outflow of the population from the villages. Compared with 1940, the total population of the largest cities has increased 10 times. The average annual growth of the urban population in the 1990s was 3.6%. Approx. 43% of the population (as of 2002). The process of urbanization is especially pronounced in Java. In the capital Jakarta in 1930, 533 thousand inhabitants lived, in 1961 - 2.9 million, in 1971 - 4.6 million, and in 1980 - 6.5 million inhabitants. The number of inhabitants of Jakarta in 2004 reached 8,987 thousand people, and in the urban agglomeration - 17,891 thousand people. Large cities (as of January 1, 2004) in Java also include Surabaya (3.092 thousand), Bandung (2.781 thousand), Tangerang (1.344 million), Semarang (1.289 thousand), Malang (841.5 thousand .), Bogor (697.1 thousand, according to other estimates - 1.5 million inhabitants), Surakarta (606.7 thousand) and Yogyakarta (492.8 thousand, according to other estimates - 3.122 thousand people). living,
D) Ethnic composition. In Indonesia, approx. 330 ethnic and tribal groups, each with its own language, customs and social organization. The most numerous of them are Javanese; their share in the country's population is 45%. They inhabit most of Central, East and partly West Java, South coast Sumatra and Kalimantan. They are followed by the Sundas (Sundans) (14%) from West Java and the Madurians (7.5%), occupying, in addition to about. Madura, eastern part Me you. The western and eastern parts of Sumatra are inhabited by the Minangkabau (3.3%), and north coast- Batak and Acehnese. Isolated mountainous areas Northern Sumatra is inhabited by gayo and alas. Malays (7.5%) form the main population in the eastern and southeastern parts of Sumatra, on the coast of Kalimantan and the Riau Islands. Other large nationalities include the Banjdars, close to the Malays, and the Dayaks of Kalimantan (the indigenous population of the island). The southwest of Sulawesi is inhabited by the Bugis and Makassars, the mountainous regions of the center are inhabited by the Toraja tribes. The Balinese live on the island of Bali, on the island. Lombok - Sasaki. Among the peoples of the Moluccas, the Ambonese stand out. Most of New Guinea is inhabited by Papuan peoples. In addition, there are many small peoples with local habitats.
D) languages. Indonesia has the second largest number of living languages in the world. 728 languages and dialects are spoken here. The languages of the country's indigenous ethnic groups differ significantly, although they all belong to the Malayo-Polynesian (Austronesian) language family, including Javanese, the most widely spoken language in Indonesia. It is native to 75 million inhabitants, especially on about. Java. The only exceptions are the Papuan languages, which are spoken in West Papua and other parts of eastern Indonesia. The single national language is Indonesian, or bahasa indonesia, was adopted in 1945. It is based on a dialect of Malay known as riau malay, which at one time acted as the main language of trade and communication between the inhabitants of the archipelago. Despite their official status, bahasa indonesia is considered native only for 30 million people (approx. 7% of the population). This language is taught in all schools, it is the language spoken by educated and urban Indonesians. Writing is based on the Latin alphabet; in 1972 Indonesia and Malaysia agreed on a common spelling.
E) Religion. Indonesia is a multi-religious country. Islam, Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, animism coexist here, covering various linguistic and social groups of the population. The Indonesian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and equality of all faiths. Indonesia is the largest Muslim country in the world. The vast majority of Indonesians (approx. 88% of the population) are Muslims. These are mainly Sunnis of the Shafi'i persuasion, but there are also adherents of other legal schools - Hanafi, Hanbali and Maliki. Shiites are represented by a part of immigrants from India and Pakistan. Although in some parts of Indonesia (Sumatra, western Java and southeast Kalimantan) Muslims strictly observe the canons of Islam, in other places this religion is usually heavily influenced by Buddhism and animistic beliefs. There are over 100 thousand mosques. Christians make up approx. 9% of the population. Their main centers are concentrated mainly in the provinces of North Sumatra, North Sulawesi, East Nusa Tenggara, Central Java and Papua, as well as in the metropolitan area. Christians are dominated by Protestants, led by the Union of Churches in Indonesia, which unites over 60 Lutheran and Reformed churches. The largest among them are the Batak Christian Protestant Church (more than 3 million members), the Minahas Christian Evangelical Church (over 500 thousand), the Indonesian Christian Church (350 thousand), the Protestant Christian Church (337 thousand) and the Christian Protestant Church in Indonesia (255 thousand). Catholics ca. 2.6% of the population. Organizationally, they are headed by the Supreme Church Board of Trustees of Indonesia. Almost all residents of Bali and the majority of Tengger in East Java practice Hinduism (approx. 2% of the population), which has been influenced by Buddhism, while the majority of the Chinese remain adherents of Buddhism (about 1% of the population), Confucianism (0.5%) or Taoism. In the late 1970s, there were 1,260 Buddhist and 171,000 Hindu temples in Indonesia, approx. 4 thousand monasteries. In the interior of the islands, animism is widespread - the belief that the world is filled with all sorts of spirits hiding in volcanoes, wind, rivers, trees, rocks, graves, daggers, gongs, drums, etc. Local tribal beliefs prevail among the Dayaks, Kubu, Bataks, Papuans, and others.
4. State structure:
A) the executive branch. The head of state, government and supreme commander of the armed forces of Indonesia is the president, who is assisted in the performance of his duties by the vice president. The President and Vice President are elected (since 2004) by universal direct and secret suffrage for a term of five years, after which they may be re-elected, but not more than for one more term. Previously, the president was elected by parliament. Candidates for President and Vice President are nominated by a general list of political parties or their coalitions that have won at least 5% of the vote in parliamentary elections, or 3% of the 550 seats (i.e. 17 seats) in the People's Representative Council. If none of the lists receives the required majority of votes, a second round is held, in which a relative majority of votes is sufficient to win. The first popularly elected president of the Republic of Indonesia was retired General Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, who won in the second round of presidential elections (September 20, 2004) over 60.9% of the 122 million voters who voted. The inauguration of the first popularly elected president took place on October 20, 2004. According to the constitution, the president is empowered to submit bills to the Council of People's Representatives (CPR) and approve government regulations for their implementation; declare war, conclude peace and treaties with other states; if necessary, introduce a state of emergency and govern the country by decrees. Previously, the head of state had the authority to legislate, but changes made to the text of the constitution in 1997 deprived him of this right. The president also appoints and dismisses ministers, ambassadors and consuls, has the right to amnesty and pardon, confer titles and honorary distinctions. At the same time, being the head of the executive branch, he does not have the right to interfere in the work of parliament, dissolve the legislature or suspend its activities. Under the leadership of the president, the government of the republic - the cabinet of ministers - operates. The government is vested with the right to issue laws with the consent of the SNP, as well as to develop appropriate regulations for their implementation. Ministers appointed by the President head government ministries and assist the President in his activities. Formed in October 2004, the United Indonesia Cabinet (Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu) includes, in addition to the President and Vice President, 34 members and the Attorney General. The central authorities include the Supreme Audit Office, which exercises control over the execution of the financial side of the state budget. Its members are proposed by the People's Representative Council and appointed by the President. The previous version of the Constitution provided for the creation of a Supreme Advisory Council under the President, with the right to give advice to the President at his request.
b) the legislature. Belongs to the People's Consultative Congress. Under Suharto, Congress met once every five years to elect a President (each time Suharto became) and Vice President, and to approve the "Guidelines for Public Policy." According to the constitutional amendments that came into force in 2004, the People's Consultative Congress lost its significance as the highest representative body of power and was transformed into a parliament, which consists of two chambers - the Council of People's Representatives (SNR) and the Council of Regional Representatives (SRP). The Congress is vested with the right to adopt and amend the constitution, appoint the president and vice president, and also initiate the procedure for removing the president from power. The size of the Congress is not specified. Formed after the elections in 2004, the Congress consists of 550 members of the SNP and 128 members of the SWP. Members of both chambers are elected by direct universal suffrage for a term of five years. Previously, the Congress was formed from members of parliament - the People's Representative Council, as well as representatives from political parties, provinces delegated by local SNPs, and functional groups. The latter were appointed by presidential decree. According to the law of 1969, the NCC consisted of 920 members, of which 460 were members of parliament. In 1987 the membership of the Congress was expanded to 1000 members. After the reforms approved on January 28, 1999, the composition of the NCC was reduced to 700 seats: 500 seats were assigned to parliamentarians, 135 seats to provincial representatives and 65 seats to functional group representatives. Current legislative activity is carried out by the Council of People's Representatives. Under Suharto, the Council met regularly throughout the year to discuss laws proposed by the executive branch. Along with the deputies elected from party lists, it also included a certain number of members appointed by the government and delegated by the military. According to the law, elected in 2004, the composition of the Council consists of 550 members. From now on, all seats in parliament are distributed only among the political parties that took part in the general parliamentary elections. Representatives of the military lost their quotas in parliament. The Chamber must meet at its meetings at least once a year and approve the country's budget and bills submitted for consideration by the government or parliament deputies. If the proposed bill does not receive support, then with the current composition of Parliament, it cannot be submitted for discussion a second time. All laws come into force only after approval by the president.
C) local authorities. Administratively, the Republic of Indonesia is divided into 33 provinces, including the Special Regions - Sultanate of Yogyakarta and Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, as well as the Special Capital Region - Greater Jakarta. The provinces are headed by governors who exercise the functions of executive power. The governor of Yogyakarta, who is the Sultan, holds this post for life. However, the current ruler of Yogyakarta, Sultan Hamengkubuwono X, took over as governor in a direct election. Previously, prior to constitutional reform in 1999, governors were appointed by the president on the advice of provincial legislatures after prior consultation with the Home Secretary. As a rule, most of the governors were from among the representatives of the armed forces. The provinces are divided into kabupatens (regions or districts) and the latter into kecamatans (subdistricts). Municipalities are formed in large cities. The executive power in kabupatens is headed by the head of the regional administration - bupati, and in the municipalities - by the mayors of cities. The appointment of the bupati and the mayor is made by the governor of the province in conjunction with the regional representative bodies, and the confirmation of the position is made by the minister of the interior. Voters take part in elections to provincial, city and district legislatures - people's representative councils. The number of seats in provincial SPCs ranges from 45 to 100 seats, and in district or municipal assemblies from 20 to 45, depending on the population. this region, with each region of the lower region receiving 1 seat in the legislature of the region of the higher level.
D) the judicial system. It consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Court, higher and district courts, as well as courts of special jurisdiction. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court in Jakarta. The chairman and all members of the court are appointed by the president from a list of candidates approved by the legislature. The Supreme Court has the right to supervise the activities of other judicial bodies and is the court of last resort, endowed with the right to hear cassation appeals against sentences and decisions issued by lower courts. Issues related to the interpretation of the constitution, as well as the dissolution of political parties and the dismissal of the president and vice president, which were previously within the competence of the Supreme Court, were transferred to the Constitutional Court, formed on August 17, 2003. In the largest cities of the country - Jakarta, Surabaya, Medan, Makassar , Banda Aceh, Padang, Palembang, Bandung, Semarang, Banjarmasine, Manado, Denpasar, Ambon and Jayapure - there are High Courts that hear major criminal and civil cases, as well as appeals against decisions of lower courts. The lower instance is formed by district courts, which consider petty criminal and civil cases. Chairmen and members of local courts are appointed by the Minister of Justice and Human Rights. Courts of special jurisdiction have also been created by law: the Commercial Court, which specializes in bankruptcy cases with possible recourse to a special bankruptcy tribunal of the Supreme Court; courts of military justice; religious courts that deal with cases based on the Koran, adat and Sharia and cover almost exclusively issues of family and marriage relations.
D) Political organizations. First political parties and organizations (Budi Utomo, Indian Party, Sarekat Islam, etc.) appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. After the country gained independence, the main role in political life was played by the Indonesian National Party (NPI), the Communist Party (KPI) and Muslim parties (Nahdlatul Ulama, Mashumi). However, the democratic experiment did not last long. After the establishment of the "managed democracy" system, in the early 1960s, the government took a course of "simplification" of the system of political parties, as a result of which not only the Socialist Party of Indonesia and Mashumi (1960), suspected of participating in anti-government rebellions, were banned, but and dozens of other smaller parties. After Suharto came to power, a ban was imposed on the activities of the Communist Party of Indonesia. However, while continuing the course of "simplification of the party system", Suharto at the same time sought to give his regime a more democratic appearance. For this purpose, the political organization Golkar (Golongan karya) was founded, which united civil servants, officers and, to a lesser extent, students, peasants, women, etc. in the so-called. "functional groups". Suharto also allowed political organizations that did not enjoy the support of the authorities, but after the 1971 elections he forced nine parties, different in political orientation and religious composition, to merge into two, thereby creating a three-party system. Small nationalist and Christian parties (National Party of Indonesia , The Union of Defenders of Indonesian Independence, the Catholic Party, the Christian Party of Indonesia, and the Poor People's Party) created the Democratic Party of Indonesia in 1973, and the Unity and Development Party arose in place of the four Muslim parties.
E) Public organizations. Behind the Muslim parties are mass Islamic organizations: the conservative Nakhdatul Ulama (up to 40 million members, the chairman is Hasim Muzadi) and the modernist Muhammadya (founded in 1912, about 28 million people, 14 thousand schools, 160 universities, thousands of mosques; chairman - Syafi Maarif). Recently, the process of rapprochement of these organizations has begun on the basis of protecting Islam from attacks and accusations of supporting religious violence, which is associated with the US campaign against international terrorism. Dozens of paramilitary Islamist groups operate openly or semi-legally in the country, many of which are involved in acts of violence and ethnic cleansing in various parts of the country. Jamaa Islamiya(“Islamic Community”) is a radical Islamist movement advocating the creation of an Islamic Caliphate in Southeast Asia (on the territory of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Cambodia, Southern Philippines and Southern Thailand). Laskar Jihad(“Warriors of the Holy War”) is a paramilitary religious and political group. Islamic Defenders Front- a radical group created in 1997. Unlike others, it does not fight for the creation of an Islamic state, but requires strict adherence to Sharia law. Known for creating paramilitary gangs that attacked bars and nightclubs in Jakarta. Participates in the religious conflict in the Moluccas and Sumatra. Has several thousand members.
G) Foreign policy. Suharto has been pragmatic, but in recent years he has been looking for what Indonesians believe is a "more active and independent course." In the early 1990s, Indonesia played a key role in ending civil war in Cambodia. In 1991-1995, Jakarta took over the chairmanship of the Non-Aligned Movement, and since the early 1990s has become a place for informal meetings of representatives of countries involved in the conflict with China over the delimitation of territorial waters in the South China Sea. In 1994, Indonesia hosted the annual forum of the heads of state of the Economic Cooperation Organization of Asia and Pacific Ocean where Suharto convinced his colleagues of the need to turn the region into a free trade zone. In the early 1960s, Indonesia was at odds with its neighbors, especially Singapore and Malaysia. Suharto's efforts were focused on creating the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which Indonesia initiated in 1967. Nevertheless, Indonesian-Malaysian relations were complicated by territorial disputes, illegal migration of labor from Indonesia to Malaysia, and the flight of rebels to Malaysia. from the Sumatran Ache Special Region in the early 1990s. Under Suharto, Indonesia maintained close political ties with the United States, Japan, and most Western European states. This position was not unexpected, given the fact that Suharto came to power as a result of the defeat of the Communist Party of Indonesia, at that time the third largest among the world's communist parties. Relations with the PRC, which helped the Indonesian communists, were frozen until 1990.
5. Economy:
A) economic history. In 1949, when Indonesia gained independence, its economy consisted of two main sectors. One of them included plantations, mines, oil fields, oil refineries and other large industrial enterprises. At all these facilities, the production process was mechanized, technologically perfected and provided with skillful management. The other sector consisted of peasant farms and small-scale industry, often in the form of cottage industry. If we ignore several large sugar plantations, then until 1830 the main suppliers of agricultural products on the islands of the archipelago remained the farms of peasants and small tenants. At one time, the Dutch traded with the villagers mainly through Chinese intermediaries. However, after the Napoleonic wars, the authorities introduced the so-called. "system of forced crops", which boiled down to the obligatory supply of export agricultural products by local farmers. Later, the main emphasis was placed on the development of the plantation sector. Until the end of the 19th century. Economic activity the Dutch was deployed mainly in the "hinterlands" of Javanese seaports. steam engines appeared on the archipelago as early as 1825 and were first used on civilian and military ships. By the early 1880s, the process of mechanization of the powerful sugar industry associated with transport and other types of industrial infrastructure in Java was almost completed. According to some specialists in the economic history of Southeast Asia, in 1900 Surabaya stood in the northeast on a par with such leading industrial centers of Asia as Calcutta, Mumbai (Bombay) and Osaka.
B) Economic growth. After 1969, the Indonesian government embarked on a planned development of the economy on the basis of a program planned for a 25-year period, which included five five-year plans. The political and economic crisis of 1997–1998 led to the disruption of the Seventh Five-Year Plan. Before the jump in world oil prices (1967–1973), Indonesia's average annual GDP growth was an impressive 7.9%, with financial structures and construction developing most rapidly. From 1973 to 1981, GDP growth slowed to 7.5% per year, led by the same financial sector and manufacturing industries. The decline to 4.3% between 1981 and 1988 was the result of a decline in oil and gas export earnings. From 1989 to 1996, the efforts of the central authorities aimed at developing export industries led to an increase in GDP of more than 7% per year. But the most impressive was the increase in the cost of services and the number of people employed in the tertiary sector. Per capita income rose from $75 in 1966 to $1,013 in 1996, but recession, widespread unemployment and a sharp depreciation of the Indonesian rupiah caused by the financial and economic crisis in 1997–1998 led to a decrease in this figure in 1998 to 400 dollars. The crisis was expressed in a decrease in economic growth rates from 7.8% in 1996 to 2.9% in 1998, a reduction in GDP from 227 billion dollars in 1996 to 160 billion dollars in 2000. However, thanks to export earnings crude oil and gas received in 2003–2004, GDP increased from $172.9 billion in 2002 to $758.8 billion in 2004. Real GDP growth in 2004 was 4.1%, and per capita income population - 3200 US dollars. However, this growth has only led to an increase in the uneven distribution of income.
C) employment of the population. Since 1980, the economically active population has increased by 45 million people. The contingent of the active population is replenished annually by approximately 2.5-3 million due to the influx of young people. Only a part of them are employed in big cities in factories and construction sites. Most Indonesians who have not been able to find a place within the formal sector are looking for work in the informal structures that are typical of urban centers. Today, according to estimates for 2004, the economically active population of Indonesia is 105.7 million people, of which 41.2% are women. Large public investments in the development of public education in the 1970s responded with a rise in the adult literacy rate from 47% in 1961 to 89% in 1997. However, the industrialization process of the 1980s and 1990s revealed a shortage of skilled workers. Fully employed in production - approx. 60 million people. According to official figures, the unemployment rate fell from 10.6% in 2002 to 8.7% in 2004, with unemployment particularly high among people with higher education in the mid-1990s. The number of persons below the poverty line is 27% (1999). Despite the outflow of the labor force from agriculture to other sectors, the majority of the population (44%) is employed in agriculture; 38% work in the service sector, 17% in industry. The mining industry employs less than one percent of the total workforce, but it contributes over 10% of GDP and generates over 2/3 of export earnings. Indonesia's main mineral resources are oil, natural gas, tin, alumina, nickel, copper, coal, manganese and iron ore.
D) Agriculture. Although the share of agriculture in gross product country is steadily declining - from 28% in 1981 to 16.6% in 2004 - it continues to be the most important sector of the Indonesian economy, which employs approx. 45% of the active population, mainly landless peasants or hired agricultural workers. plantation workers. During the period of the first three five-year plans, the government spent a lot of money to stimulate the country's agricultural production, paying special attention to the development of irrigation, the creation of infrastructure and the distribution of new varieties of cultivated plants among the peasants. The encouragement of the creation of cooperative enterprises and agricultural banks also contributed to the increase in production. As a result, by 1984 Indonesia switched to self-sufficiency in food products. However, due to high population growth, drought and the crisis of 1997, the country is again forced to import a large amount of food, including rice and wheat. Very acute, especially in Java and Madura, remains the question of land ownership and the size of peasant allotments.
D) the service industry. Over the past 30 years, wholesale and retail trade enterprises, transport, communications, financial services, various professional services have been developed, and the network of hotels and restaurants has expanded. The service sector in the mid-1990s - the first half of the 2000s provided from 35 to 41% of GDP and was characterized by high (8.6%) growth rates.
E) Transport. The most important role in life is played by the sea and river navigation, providing communication with the islands of the archipelago and neighboring countries. There are hundreds of ports of various importance in the country - from universal ones with container berths to small roads. The largest ports that carry out the bulk of operations with foreign trade cargo are Perak (Surabaya), Balavan (Medan), Makassar (Sulawesi) and Tanjung Priok (Jakarta). The export of oil and natural gas goes mainly through ports in Sumatra. The total tonnage of the merchant fleet (710 ships, more than 1 thousand br.-reg. T) - 3,045 thousand br.-reg. T. The main transportation is carried out by sea and river transport; ferries run between the islands. Takes on great importance automobile transport. In the 1970s, the authorities made large investments in the construction of roads and the improvement of communications. Modern road networks are concentrated mainly in economically developed and densely populated areas. Length highways (1999) –
G) money circulation. Currency unit Indonesia before 1945: 1 Javanese guilder = 100 cents; from November 2, 1949: 1 Indonesian rupiah = 100 senami; after the monetary reform in 1965: 1 Indonesian rupiah = 100 new sen (1 new rupiah = 1000 old rupiah). Initially, the rupee exchange rate was equal to 3.80 for 1 US dollar. As a result of inflation and repeated devaluations, the Indonesian currency has been constantly depreciating. Provoked by the economic crisis in Southeast Asia (1998), another depreciation of the Indonesian rupiah by 35% led to the fall of the Suharto government. In the Riau archipelago, until December 1, 1963, the Malayan dollar was in official circulation. On October 15, 1963, the rupee of Riua Island, equal to 1 Malay dollar, was introduced into circulation. The Indonesian rupiah replaced the local one on July 1, 1964. From March 30, 1950 to May 1, 1963, West Irian had its own currency (1 Netherland New Guinea guilder = 100 cents). After joining Indonesia in 1963, the Irian Barat rupee was put into circulation, which circulated within the country as a separate currency. The Indonesian rupiah replaced the Irian Barat rupiah on February 18, 1971.
6. Society:
A) social structure. Indonesia has an extremely complex social structure. For example, in Java, a typical family consists of a married couple and children, is independent in everyday life and does not maintain close ties with other relatives. Meanwhile, complex families are common in Bali, in which several brothers with wives and children live together with their parents.
B) Rural society. Although the urban population continues to grow, Indonesia remains a predominantly rural country. Most of the population of Java and Bali is included in rice growing communities. Once, during the period of the Indo-Javanese principalities of the 8th-13th centuries, these territories were under the strong influence of Hinduism. Many Javanese are considered Muslims, however, even today in the coastal regions of Java, from where in the 15th-16th centuries. Islam began to spread, Hindu and Buddhist traditions are still traced. Borrowed ideas about castes and the special hierarchical system that developed on their basis, which took root primarily in Java during the period of Dutch domination, did not disappear either. At the very top of the social pyramid are the descendants of princely families, the next layer is formed by civil servants - priyai, who occupy administrative positions in the villages. However, the majority of the population of Java and Bali are peasants who earn their livelihood by labor in the flood fields.
C) Urban society. Unlike the rural population, the urban community in any part of Indonesia has a more or less similar social structure. Therefore, all the differences between the major cities of the country are more likely to be explained by historical circumstances, for example, the clear influence of the Dutch colonial period (which is still noticeable in the architecture of Ambon and Manado) or the presence of national minorities (for example, the largest community of ethnic Chinese in the archipelago is located in the city of Medan). In both cities and towns of the country, the non-Chinese elite is made up of government officials, senior army officers, and leading politicians. This layer of the elite also includes individual entrepreneurs, doctors, university professors, artists, whose professional authority increases their chances of taking an administrative or political position. The social status of such people is determined not only by their financial independence. Citizens belonging to the elite usually know one of the European languages (formerly Dutch, now English), are familiar with the problems of European and American countries, and have a university education. Although such qualities significantly separate them from ordinary compatriots, in private life many adhere to national traditions - for example, they wear a sarong at home, prefer rice to other food products, etc.
D) The position of women. The country is characterized by a high social status of women. In certain segments of the population, women enjoy considerable prestige due to their key role in bringing families together. Using legal equality, women can inherit property, except in cases where Sharia law comes into force. Indonesian women have achieved considerable success in small business and often occupy high positions in the field of entrepreneurship and the apparatus government controlled. Even among zealous Muslims, Indonesian women do not adhere to a reclusive lifestyle, are not limited in movement and do not cover their faces, but only cover their heads with a scarf. The importance of women in the national culture of Indonesia is symbolized by the widely celebrated holiday in honor of Princess Kartini. At the beginning of the 20th century This Javanese princess initiated a movement for the emancipation of Indonesian women in accordance with the demands of the times.
D) youth. The youth actively participated in the guerrilla war in the jungle and in various battles, in particular in the defense of Surabaya. It is no coincidence that many major avenues and famous architectural structures in the cities they bear such names as Ute Street (Youth Street) or Ute Hall (Youth Hall). The main political parties have their own youth organizations. Student support for the army contributed to the suppression of the communist putsch in the mid-1960s and facilitated Suharto's rise to power. Then, in the 1970s, the youth came out against Suharto on a broad front. In the 1980s, attempts were made to dampen student political activism, but it flared up again in the next decade, becoming the main factor that led to Suharto's resignation.
E) the trade union movement. Trade unions have been active since the emergence of the Indonesian labor movement in 1908. In the early 1990s, the only legally recognized trade union center was the government-controlled All Indonesia Workers' Union (APSI), formed in February 1973 by retired army officers after the defeat of the independent trade union movement. Newly formed independent trade union in 1990 Setia cavan(“Solidarity”) was banned by the government three years later. The number of strikes in Indonesia increased markedly from about 1985, and peaked in 1994, when workers in the city of Medan in northern Sumatra, organized by the union, were especially massive. "Prosperity". In total, over a thousand strikes took place between 1990 and 1995. After the resignation of Suharto (1998), Indonesia ratified the convention of the International Labor Organization (ILO) guaranteeing the right of workers to organize.
AND) Social Security. In accordance with labor laws, Indonesia has a 7-hour working day with a 40-hour work week. A weekly day off is guaranteed. Legislation regulates and establishes the norms of child and female labor, working conditions and its duration. Women are entitled to three months of maternity leave. Women's work in hazardous industries, night shifts and the work of children under 14 years of age are prohibited. Enterprises are required to pay all or part of wages in case of illness and provide free medical care, full compensation in case of accidents at work, as well as a pension in case of complete disability. There are public and private pension funds. In practice, labor laws are widely violated - working hours are not respected, child labor is used and women are discriminated against. The practice of hiring temporary workers instead of permanent ones is widely used. Compulsory state arbitration is provided for the resolution of labor conflicts.
7.Culture:
A) cultural influences. The Malayo-Polynesian origin of the indigenous population of the country is evidenced by the high social status of women and the symbolic significance attached to boats. As a result of the collective creative efforts of various peoples who came to the archipelago, there was a layering of different cultures. Hinduism and Buddhism, which came to the islands primarily from India and from the 8th century BC, consistently exerted their influence. Successfully entrenched in Java and Bali; Islam introduced in the 14th century From the Middle East by merchants and preachers; European traditions that were introduced by the Portuguese in the 16th century. And then the Dutch until the beginning of the 19th century.
b) Music and dance. An example of the combination of Hindu influence and local tradition is the famous Javanese shadow theater (wayang-kulit), also popular in Bali. During the performance, the puppeteer (dalang) moves figures of puppets made of buffalo skin in front of a white screen, on which the light of an oil lamp is directed. Dolls are clearly visible against the background of the screen, and their shadows are on the screen itself. The performance of wayang-kulit, which lasts all night, is not only a performance, but also a kind of ritual action. Acting out stories from Indian epics Ramayana And Mahabharata serves to glorify the gods, appease the spirits and enrich the souls of the audience. It is believed that the ancient art of wayang kulit could have originated in China or South India, but most likely it originated in Indonesia. According to some estimates, there are 40 times more puppet troupes for every inhabitant in Java than in the United States, and, of course, this ratio is no less in Bali. In Java, in addition, there is a theater of voluminous wooden puppets wayang-golek, a theater of masked actors - wayang-topeng and actors without masks - wayang-wong, in which live dancers skillfully imitate the clumsy movements of puppets. In addition to their own varieties of puppet theater, dances such as kechak (monkey) or kris (dagger) are traditionally performed in Bali, depicting a duel between a witch and a dragon. It should be added that the orchestra is also popular on both islands. gamelan, consisting of local percussion instruments, a string rebab, a local plucked string instrument and bamboo flutes. In Bali, such orchestras prefer fast rhythms, and in Java, smooth melodies.
B) Literature. At the beginning of the 20th century Modern Indonesian literature arose and began to develop, closely connected with the national liberation movement. The publishing house "Baley Pustaka" ("House of Literature"), founded by the colonial government in 1908, still continues its activities. In 1933, three young writers from Sumatra - Sutan Takdir Alishahban, Armain Pane and Amir Hamzah, who sought to express the spiritual world of their country in a literary form, began to publish a small-circulation literary, artistic and socio-political magazine "Pujanga Baru" ("New Writer"). Published by the Balei Pustaka Publishing House and the Pujanga Baru magazine, the works often depicted the problems of young Indonesians whose path to freedom and progress was blocked family traditions and ancestral experiences. After the fall of the colonial regime, a sharp turn took place in the literature of Indonesia, associated with the emergence of a new literary trend - Generation of 1945. Influenced by the memories of the years of the Japanese occupation came the caustic prose of Idrus (1921-1971), the passionate poetry of Khairil Anwar (1922-1949) and the magnificent memoirs of Pramudya Ananta Tur - The human world (1980), Son of all nations (1980), footprints(1985) and Glass House(1988), combined into a tetralogy Buru Quartet. For many years these works, incl. written by Anant Tura during his imprisonment on Buru Island and then under house arrest in Jakarta were banned in Indonesia. The work of Romo Mangun was received no less coolly by the official authorities of Indonesia. bird weaver(1991), which won the Southeast Asian Writers' Prize.
D) fine arts. Indonesia maintains certain traditions in contemporary visual arts. The works of the first masters (S. Sujoyono, A. Jaya, K. Affandi, H. Ngantung, B. Resobovo) were imbued with national motifs. In 1937, the Association of Artists of Indonesia (Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia, Persagi) was created. In Java, the Academy was opened in the 1950s visual arts in Yogyakarta (now the Institute of Art of Indonesia) and the Department of Fine Arts at Bandung Technological University. Painters from Bandung such as Popo Iskandar, Mokhtar Apin and Srihadi Sudarsono worked mainly in an abstract manner, while the canvases of the graduates of the Yogyakarta Academy - Affandi, Hendra and Sujoyono in a realistic manner depict the daily life of the people, as well as scenes of the struggle for liberation of the country from Dutch colonial dependence. Later, the style of social realism, expressed in the depiction of everyday life with all its problems, was continued in the work of such artists as Joko Pekik, Hardy, Jim Supangket, Dedi Eri Supria, Haris Purnama, Bonyong Munni Ardy and other representatives of the New Art Movement (Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru). In the 1960s, the Jakarta Institute of Art Education and fine art departments were opened in some pedagogical institutes. On the island of Bali in the city of Ubud, the famous Academy of Painting and Carving operates. Indonesian Muslim artists, such as A.F. Pirous, created many paintings on the plots of the Koran.
D) Theater and cinema. Modern theater originated in the early 20th century. And it was presented mainly by school and amateur troupes with their style close to both European and traditional theater. Indonesian drama of this period is associated with the names of such writers as Rustam Effendi, Mohammad Yamin, Sanusi Pane and Armain Pane. After the Second World War and the struggle for independence, on the basis of student troupes, many studio theaters arose, headed by such masters as Usmar Ismail, whose productions were dominated not only by the works of famous European playwrights, but also by Indonesian authors, whose work was imbued with ideas of social protest and national revival. The most famous theater groups in Indonesia today are Kecil Theater(Communal Theatre; director Arifin S. Nur), Mandiri Theater(Independent Theatre; directed by Putu Vijay), Theater Populer(Popular Theatre; directed by Teguh Karya) and Bengkel Theater(Theater Workshop), created in 1967 by the famous poet and playwright Rendra. Plays are often staged on local themes, sometimes accompanied by a gamelan orchestra and elements of traditional theater (puppets, masks, etc.). In the last decade, the street theater, which was popular in the post-war years, has again been developed.
E) Education. The access of the local population to education during the colonial period was limited. The literacy rate of Indonesians by 1940 was only 6%. Since gaining independence, the state has made a huge contribution to the development of education. In 1950, a law on general education was passed. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the country successfully invested heavily in primary education. Since 1978, education has been made compulsory and free for children between the ages of 7 and 12. In 1997, up to 95% of children aged 7–12 attended school, 77% aged 13–15 and 48% aged 16–18. Primary education system at the beginning. 21st century It covered 82% of girls and 97% of boys of school age, secondary education - 56% of girls and 58% of boys. Only 10% of the population over the age of 10 did not complete primary school and remained illiterate. The literacy rate among the population over 15 in 2004 was 88.5%, incl. among women 84.1%, men 93%. Higher education received 16% of the country's citizens.
G) Science. The main institution carrying out the work of a scientific nature, including the planning of scientific research, the publication of scientific literature and the holding of scientific and practical conferences, is Indonesian Institute for Scientific Research(Lembaga ilmu pengatahuan Indonesia, LIPI) located in Jakarta. The leading place in the financing of technical development belongs to Agency for Technical Development and Implementation, which was headed by B.Yu. Habibi (President of Indonesia in 1998-1999). The largest libraries are located in Bandung, Bogor, Jakarta and Yogyakarta. In total, there are about 20 large libraries and archives in Indonesia: the National Library (founded in 1980, 750 thousand volumes) and the National Archives of the Republic of Indonesia (founded in 1892, both in Jakarta), the Library of the National Museum (over 400 thousand volumes, Jakarta ), National Library of Agricultural Sciences (founded in 1842, Bogor, 400 thousand volumes), Library of Political and Social History (founded in 1952, Jakarta, over 65 thousand volumes), Parliamentary Library (Jakarta, 200 thousand volumes) , Library of the Indonesian Institute of Scientific Research (founded in 1965, Jakarta, 100 thousand tons), Literary Archive of H.B. Yassin (founded in 1976, Jakarta, 100 thousand items).
H) Museums. Among the most famous - National Museum in Jakarta, the Zoological Museum in Bogor and the Geological Museum in Bandung. The National Museum was founded in 1778 on the basis of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, but finally took shape in 1862, when the museum and library of the Batavian Society were placed in a new building in Jakarta. The museum has a significant collection of works of Indonesian culture, organizes exhibitions and conducts a lot of research work. Among the capital's museums, one can note the Museum national history(founded in 1975), Jakarta History Museum (founded in 1974), Wayang Museum (founded in 1975), Museum of Fine Arts (founded in 1976), Textile Museum (founded in 1976), Museum of the Sea (founded in 1976). In 1977) and the Abri Satriya Mandala Armed Forces Museum (founded in 1972). Well known park Taman Mini Indonesia(“Beautiful Indonesia in miniature”, founded in 1980), whose expositions tell about the culture and life of the peoples inhabiting Indonesia.
I) sports. The development of the sport is coordinated by the Indonesian National Sports Committee (KONI) and the National Olympic Committee. In Indonesia, sports such as boxing, badminton, volleyball, swimming, archery, field hockey, weightlifting and athletics are developed. Football is very popular, and recently tennis has been developed. Some traditional sports are also common, such as martial arts (pencak silat, ujungan, katheda) or bull racing (kerapan sapi). The country is a permanent participant (since 1952) of the Olympic Games and the Asian Games, as well as the Southeast Asian Games. Indonesian athletes received their first medal at the Olympic Games in 1988 (Seoul). Indonesian athletes showed the best results at the Olympic Games in badminton both in singles and in team events.
K) Holidays. Only official and national holidays have a fixed date. Of the secular holidays declared days off, Indonesia celebrates New Year(January 1) and Independence Day (August 17). Most holidays are religious, their dates are determined by lunar calendars: Hijri (Muslim) and Shaka (Hindu-Buddhist). The main Muslim holidays: Idul Adha, Nyepi, Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, Muharram, Vesak, Ascension of the Prophet Muhammad, Idulfitr (at the end of the fasting month of Ramadan). Christmas (December 25), Easter and Chinese New Year are also celebrated. In addition, many other holidays are celebrated by various religious, national and professional groups that are not included in the number of days off.
8.Flag:
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Indonesia (Indon. Indonesia), official name- The Republic of Indonesia (Indon. Republik Indonesia) is a state in Southeast Asia. The population, according to the results of the 2010 census, is more than 237.5 million people (according to estimated data for July 2011 - more than 245.6 million people), the territory is 1,919,440 km?, according to both of these indicators is the largest country in the region. It ranks fourth in the world in terms of population and fourteenth in terms of territory.
The capital is Jakarta. The official language is Indonesian.
Unitary state, presidential republic. It is subdivided into 34 administrative-territorial units, 32 of which are provinces and 2 are special districts, equal in status to provinces.
Located on the islands of the Malay Archipelago and the western part of the island of New Guinea. Washed by the waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is the largest island state in the world. A significant part of the islands belongs to the Sunda, which in turn are divided into the Big Sunda and Small sunda islands. It has a land border with Malaysia (on the island of Kalimantan), papua new guinea(on the island of New Guinea) and East Timor (on the island of Timor).
It has significant ethnic and cultural diversity. About 88% of the population is Muslim, making Indonesia the country with the largest Muslim population in the world.
An agro-industrial country with a dynamically developing economy. The volume of GDP at purchasing power parity for 2011 amounted to 1.125 trillion US dollars (about 4700 US dollars per capita). The monetary unit is the Indonesian rupiah.
The independence of the country was proclaimed on August 17, 1945. In 1942-1945, it was under Japanese occupation, and before that it was a colonial possession of the Netherlands, which began its development in the first half of the 17th century and united most of the territory of modern Indonesia under their rule by the beginning of the 20th century.
Population. According to the results of the national census conducted in May - June 2010, the population of Indonesia amounted to 237,556,363 people, and according to estimates derived from the calculation of the existing population growth rate, by July 2011 its number increased to 245,613,043 people. Indonesia is thus the most populous country in Southeast Asia and the fourth largest in the world in terms of population.
The average population density is (based on the 2010 census) about 124 people per km?, while the population is extremely unevenly distributed: 57.5% of Indonesians live in Java, which makes up less than 7% of the territory, as a result of which this island is one one of the most densely populated places on the planet (more than 1000 people per km?). The lowest density in the Moluccas is 0.8% of the population (34 people per km?). Among the administrative-territorial units, the highest population density is registered in the Special Capital District - more than 14,400 people per km², the lowest - in the province of Papua - less than 8 people per km².
To ensure a more even distribution of the population across the country, the Indonesian authorities have been implementing a large-scale transmigration program since the 1950s - the resettlement of residents of densely populated areas (Java, Madura, Bali) to sparsely populated islands (Kalimantan, New Guinea, Moluccas). As part of this program, by the beginning of the 2000s, at least 5.5 million people were resettled, of which almost half were resettled in the 1970s and 1980s.
The share of the urban population is 44%. As of 2010, 11 cities have a population of over 1 million, the largest of which is the nation's capital, Jakarta, with a population of 9,607,787.
Growth rates, age and gender structure. For the entire period independent development Indonesia was characterized by a fairly high population growth, somewhat declining since the 1980s as a result of the implementation of the state family planning program. According to estimates for 2011, the population growth rate was 1.069% (110th place in the world) with a birth rate of 18.1 (104th place in the world) and a death rate of 6.1 (155th place in the world). According to the forecasts of UN subject matter experts, in the coming decades, the population growth rate in Indonesia will gradually decrease and, having reached its maximum in 2055 (295 million people), the Indonesian population will begin to decrease (Table 1.).
Table 1. Dynamics of population growth in Indonesia
The age structure of the population is typical for developing countries: the main feature is the high proportion of young people - the average age of an Indonesian is 28 years. 27.3% of Indonesians are under 15, 66.5% are aged 15-65, and 6.1% are over 65.
The gender composition of the population is almost even, the sex ratio is 1.01 in favor of men. Changes in this indicator in various age groups generally correspond to the global trend: 1.05 at birth, 1.04 for persons under 15 years of age, 1.01 - from 15 to 64 years of age and 0.79 - over 65 years of age. At the same time, its fluctuations in different regions of the country are very noticeable: if in the provinces of Papua and West Papua it is 1.12-1.13, then in the province of Western Lesser Sunda Islands - 0.94.
Economy. The monetary unit is the Indonesian rupiah (Indon. Rupiah), the average rate for 2010 is 9170 rupiah per 1 US dollar. The unit of exchange is sen (Indon. sen), one hundredth of a rupee. The issue of money is carried out by the central bank of the country - the Bank of Indonesia.
Inflation rates at the end of 2011 - 5.4% (140th place in the world). The volume of national gold and foreign exchange reserves as of July 2011 amounted to 122.7 billion US dollars.
The economy, with its market nature, is characterized by the active role of the state: it owns about 140 large enterprises in various sectors of the national economy, and also controls the prices of a number of goods, including basic foodstuffs and fuels and lubricants. In the volume of GDP, the share of industrial production in 2010 is 47%, services - 37.6%, agriculture - 15.4%. At the same time, 12.8% are employed in industry, 38.3% in agriculture and 48.9% of the working population in the service sector. The total working-age population is 116.5 million people (5th place in the world), the unemployment rate is 7.1% (70th place in the world).
The population is characterized by a significant socio-economic stratification, the incomes of the richest 10% are almost 11 times higher than the incomes of the poorest 10% of Indonesians. More than 13% live below the poverty line.
Corruption is a serious problem in the economy - in the ratings compiled by the Transparency International, Indonesia has been ranked at the top of the second hundred for a long time.
Industry. In 2010, the share of industrial production in the structure of GDP was 47%, more than two thirds of this volume falls on the manufacturing industries. At the same time, the number of people employed in industry is relatively small - less than 13% of the able-bodied population. Growth rates are noticeably lower than in the economy as a whole - about 4.3% in 2010.
In the manufacturing sector in 2009, more than 25 thousand enterprises were registered with the status of large or medium-sized enterprises and more than 3.2 million small enterprises and home producers. The most significant industries are the food industry (about 19% of all non-primary production, almost 6000 large and medium-sized events), the chemical industry (16%, about 900 enterprises), the textile industry (7%, about 2000 enterprises), the tobacco industry (7%, more than 1600 enterprises), production of machinery and equipment (7%, about 600 enterprises), automotive industry (6%, more than 270 enterprises), pulp and paper industry (6%, more than 530 enterprises), production of ready-made clothes (4%, more 2000 enterprises). Most small enterprises and home-based producers operate in various sectors of the light and food industries, including traditional crafts: the production of batik, ceramics, weaving of mats, the manufacture of carved wood and bone products, and other popular souvenirs.
In the extractive industry, there are mainly large national companies, a significant part of which are owned by the state, as well as Western raw material corporations. The largest of the national companies is the state monopoly Pertamina, which controls the extraction and processing of oil.
Oil production (for 2009) was more than 1.02 million barrels per day (37th place in the world), natural gas - 85.7 billion cubic meters per year (8th place in the world). Also, all the mineral resources listed in the section "Relief, inland waters, minerals, soils" are mined on an industrial scale.
Foreign trade and foreign investments. The volume of foreign trade in 2010 amounted to 285.3 billion US dollars with a positive balance of 31.1 billion dollars. The volume of exports - 158.2 billion dollars, imports - 127.1 billion dollars its place in the world).
The main export items are gas, oil, electrical equipment, textiles, timber, plywood, rubber. Imports are mainly machinery and equipment, oil, products of the chemical industry and oil refining, and certain types of food. At the same time, since the mid-2000s, the volume of imported oil has increasingly exceeded the volume of exported oil - this was the reason for Indonesia's withdrawal in 2008 from OPEC, in which it has been a member since 1962.
The volume of foreign direct investment in the Indonesian economy in 2010 is about 85.6 billion dollars (38th place in the world). Indonesian investors have placed more than $33 billion abroad (37th in the world).
Having studied the economic and geographical characteristics of Indonesia, we can draw the following conclusion: geographical position Indonesia is quite profitable, but there are a number of problems there. Indonesia's economic development is complicated by many vestiges of the colonial past. Indonesia continues to be an underdeveloped country with a relatively low industrial potential. The absence of major manufacturing industries has created a constant need to import industrial equipment and consumer goods. All this predetermined Indonesia's dependence on foreign markets.
The area is 1919.4 thousand km2.
Population - 206.1 (2001) million people.
The capital is Jakarta (8.8 million people).
Territory and geographic location. Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and one of the largest island countries in the world. In terms of territory, it ranks 13th in the world.
Indonesia is located on more than 13.5 thousand islands of the Malay Archipelago, which stretches along the equator between Indochina and Australia. The Malay Archipelago consists of the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands. Indonesia includes the Moluccas, as well as the western part of the island of New Guinea (Irian Jaya) and the islands adjacent to it. 2/3 of the country's territory is occupied by the Greater Sunda Islands (Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and Java).
The composition of the territory of Indonesia
Islands
Area, thousand km2
Share of the country's area,%
Greater Sunda Islands:
1331,4
69,37
Kalimantan (except northern part)
539,5
Sumatra
473,6
Sulawesi
189,0
Lesser Sunda Islands:
92,51
4,82
Flores
15,2
Sumbawa
15,5
Sumba
11,2
Bali
5,6
Lombok
5,4
Moluccas:
74,9
4,35
Irian Jaya (western part of New Guinea)
412,8
21,46
As an island country, Indonesia is predominantly maritime boundaries. The shores are washed by two oceans and 13 seas. In the northwest, the Strait of Malacca separates it from Malaysia and Singapore, in the northeast from the Philippines, the Sulawesi Sea, and in the southeast, the Timor and Arafura Seas from Australia. Land borders of Indonesia with Malaysia (on the island of Kalimantan) and Papua New Guinea (on the island of New Guinea).
Natural conditions and resources. The relief of Indonesia is highly dissected and is characterized by a combination of mountainous and flat areas. Most of the surface of the islands is mountainous. The mountains have steep slopes and considerable height. The most high peak the country of Jaya (5029 m.) is located in the western part of the island. New Guinea.
Along the coast of the seas and river valleys stretch areas of alluvial plains. They occupy the largest areas in the eastern part of Sumatra, in the south of Kalimantan and in the western part of New Guinea. A significant part of the lowlands is swampy. Wetlands are a serious obstacle to the economic development of the territory.
Indonesia is an area of active volcanic and seismic activity. There are more than 500 volcanoes on the archipelago, of which about 100 are active. Volcanic eruptions, which are often accompanied by earthquakes, cause great damage to the economy.
The mountainous relief affects the level of economic development of the territory and complicates transport links. The most developed and favorable for agriculture fertile mountain valleys and gentle mountain slopes. In the mountains there are significant reserves of minerals.
Minerals. The component structure of the mineral resources of Indonesia is quite diverse, although its subsoil has not yet been fully explored.
The largest are the reserves of fuel and energy resources, especially oil, whose deposits are estimated at 1.2 billion tons, almost 2/3 of the total reserves of Southeast Asia. Particularly rich in oil are Sumatra, the east coast of Kalimantan, the north coast of Java and offshore fields in the Java Sea. On the east coast of Sumatra is one of the richest in Asia and the largest oil field in the country, Minas. Natural gas reserves are estimated at 865 billion m3, which is 1/3 of the total reserves of the subregion. Almost all of them are located within the oil-bearing regions.
Coal reserves are small. Its main deposits are located in Sumatra. Low quality coal. Significant reserves of brown coal is in Kalimantan. Other fuel and energy resources include uranium and peat.
Indonesia stands out for its tin reserves, which are estimated at 1 million tons. Almost all the main tin deposits are located on the islands of Bangui, Belatung and Sinkep, which are often called " tin islands". In terms of tin reserves, the country ranks third in the world and second in the subregion (after Malaysia).
The country has relatively large bauxite deposits. According to their reserves, which are estimated at 150 million tons, Indonesia ranks second in Southeast Asia. They have a high content of alumina, and their development is carried out mainly by an open method. Reserves of other metal ores are small. The main reserves of iron ore are concentrated in Sulawesi. Reserves of manganese, nickel, cobalt and copper were discovered.
Sumatra has reserves of gold and silver, and Kalimantan has diamonds. The country also has sulfur, phosphorites and other minerals.
climate resources. The territory of Indonesia is located in the zone of the equatorial and subequatorial climatic zones. The seasonality of the climate is manifested only within the subequatorial belt and is associated with changes in monsoon winds. Most of the country's territory lies within the equatorial climate zone. Flat areas with an equatorial climate are characterized by high temperatures throughout the year - +24 ° ... 26 ° C. Only in the mountains does the temperature drop to + 15 ° C. Precipitation falls evenly throughout the year in the form of showers. On the flat territories, on average, up to 2000 mm of them fall annually, and in the mountains - up to 4000 mm. The wettest place is in the western part of about. Sumatra, where more than 6000 mm falls annually. precipitation. The least rainfall is in the Palu Valley in the southwest of the island. Sulawesi - up to 500 mm. in year.
Within the subequatorial climate, only the eastern coast of about. Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. This region is characterized by high temperatures throughout the year and a pronounced alternation of two seasons: wet and dry. On average, up to 1000 mm falls on the plains per year. precipitation, and in the mountains - up to 2000 mm. The dry season lasts from May to October.
In most areas, the climate is favorable for human life, especially at an altitude of 500 to 1000 m. These areas also have the highest population density.
Climatic conditions are favorable for the development of agriculture. The upper limit of agricultural activity in a significant part of the country is at an altitude of over 2000 m above sea level. High temperatures throughout the year allow 2-3 crops to be harvested from one field.
Soil resources. The soil cover of Indonesia is dominated by lateritic soils, formed under conditions of high humidity and constantly high temperatures. Red soils are common in areas with seasonal moisture. Significant areas are occupied by meadow and alluvial-meadow soils. These soils are waterlogged and require reclamation works. Heavy rains reduce soil fertility, but river sediment and volcanic activity restore it. A significant part of the soil cover is eroded as a result of intensive deforestation.
Water resources. The year in Indonesia is many, but their length is small. largest river- Kapuas flows on about. Kalimantan.
Most of the year are full of water throughout the year. Seasonal fluctuations in runoff are observed in areas with a monsoon climate. In wet season rivers often overflow their banks, in dry conditions they become shallow, and some dry up.
The rivers of Indonesia are of multifunctional importance. In off-road conditions, they serve as means of communication, are used for timber rafting, for irrigation and fishing. Hydropower resources, according to various estimates, range from 10 to 15 million kW.
Rivers also bring natural disasters during floods during rains. Stormy floods are especially dangerous - Banjara. To protect the elements, dams are being built along the banks of many rivers.
Numerous lakes are small. More - Lake Toba in Sumatra.
Forest resources. Indonesia has the largest forest area in Southeast Asia. Forests cover 59.7% of the country's territory. The forest cover is high in Kalimantan, Sumatra and Irian Jai and low in Java.
The species composition of forests is very diverse. The most common are moist evergreen forests, which occupy 2/3 of the forested area. Many types of trees have valuable wood and edible fruits. Monsoon deciduous forests grow in the southeast of the country. Teak and eucalyptus forests are especially valued. Mangrove forests grow along the coast. their wood is used mainly for fuel.
Bamboo is harvested for local needs. For export are tree species that have strong and beautiful wood. A significant part of the wood is lost due to difficult transportation conditions.
Intensive deforestation leads to increased soil erosion. The country is developing measures aimed at reforesting some areas.
Population. The ethnic composition of the Indonesian population is very diverse. About 300 ethnic groups and 16 large nationalities live in the country.
Anthropologically, the majority of the population belongs to the southern branch of the Mongoloid race. The largest peoples include Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Malays. They make up 2/3 of the total population of the country and speak languages belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian language family. In the extreme east of the country, the Papuan peoples belonging to the Australoid race live. Among the representatives of non-indigenous peoples, the Chinese, Indians, Japanese, Arabs and Europeans predominate.
The official language is Indonesian.
Indonesia is one of the largest countries in the world in terms of population. In mid-2000, 206.1 million people lived on its territory (the fourth largest in the world). Every year the country's population is growing by 3-4 million people. Over the past ten years, the average population growth rate was 1.8% per year, and at the end of the 90s it decreased to 1.4%.
Population growth is mainly due to natural increase. External migrations did not have a significant impact on both the formation of the current ethnic composition of the population and the dynamics of its numbers. During 1930-1995, the country's population increased by 3.2 times.
In the late 1990s, Indonesia had a birth rate of 24 per 1,000 inhabitants and a death rate of 7 per 1,000 inhabitants. main reason high natural increase was the decline in mortality, especially among children. Indonesia's infant mortality rate of 64 children per 1,000 births is in line with the global average.
The age structure of the population is dominated by young age groups. Children under 14 make up 31.0% of the total population, while those over 65 make up only 4.0%. Average life expectancy for men is 65 years, for women - 70 years.
The young age structure of the population has led to a decrease in the share of the economically active population - about 40%. In the sectoral structure, there is a high share of people employed in agriculture - 45% and a low share of people employed in industry - 11%. Unemployment rate - 5.5% (1998). This figure is especially high in Java, where 2/3 of the economically active population is concentrated.
The average population density is 110 people per km2 (2000). According to this indicator, the country ranks 69th in the world. The highest population density on about. Java - 813 people per km2, and the least populated island. Irian Jaya - 4 people per km2. The country has developed a program for the migration of residents from about. Java to other islands.
The majority of Indonesia's population lives in rural areas. The country is characterized by the so-called false urbanization, in which the growth of the urban population is caused mainly by agrarian overpopulation, and not by the development of industry. In the mid-1990s, 32% of the population lived in cities. The level of urbanization in Java is especially high, which is explained by the presence of large cities here. Of the country's six millionaire cities, four are on this island. The largest city in Indonesia is Jakarta, which is home to 8.8 million people (1996). The cities of Surabaya and Bandung each have more than 2 million inhabitants. About 10% of the total population of the country lives in cities with a million population. Big cities located mainly on the coast of the islands.
More than 80% of the population is Muslim, mostly Sunni. The second largest and most numerous religion is Christianity. Protestants predominate among Christians. Other religions include Hinduism and Buddhism. Some small nations adhere to traditional beliefs.
Features of development and general characteristics of the economy. The first states on the territory of modern Indonesia arose at the beginning of our era.
Before the arrival of Europeans, Java and some other islands had reached a fairly high level of economic development for that time. They carried on a brisk trade with China, India and the countries of the Middle East. The main subject of their trade was spices, which were grown in the Moluccas.
From the end of the XVI century. Indonesia was colonized first by the Portuguese and then by the Dutch. For more than 350 years, until World War II, Indonesia was a Dutch colony.
During this period, the pace of economic development was very slow. In addition to traditional crops that have long been cultivated in the country (spices, rice), new crops were introduced that were in demand on the world market. For example, at the beginning of the XVIII century. The Dutch brought the coffee tree to the country. For a long time, coffee, sugar cane, and since the beginning of the 20th century. - Hevea, were among the most profitable crops.
The agrarian reform of 1870 freed the peasants from the forced cultivation of cash crops and assigned to them the plots they cultivated at that time. The rest of the land was transferred to the Europeans for the organization of the plantation economy. Indonesian agriculture developed into two main sectors: the large-scale plantation economy of foreign monopolies and the small-scale peasant economy of the Indonesians. Java was the main plantation area. From the beginning of the XX century. plantation areas expanded in Sumatra and Kalimantan.
At the end of the XIX century. the mining industry began to develop, especially the extraction of tin and oil. They became important exports of the country and a source of great profits for the monopolies. In the pre-war period, Indonesia provided 3.2% of world oil production.
However, the main object of exploitation and the source of foreign capital inflow in Indonesia was agriculture.
During World War II, Indonesia was occupied by Japan. The Japanese expanded the cultivation of rice (for the needs of the army), cotton, ram and other fiber crops.
The Japanese occupation violated the external economic ties countries that have developed historically, paralyzed its economic life. This led to the decline important industries Agriculture.
In August 1945, the Republic of Indonesia was proclaimed, which in the autumn of 1945 was suppressed as a result of armed aggression by the Netherlands. Only in 1949 did Holland recognize the independence of Indonesia.
In the early 50s of the XX century. the restoration of the economy, destroyed during the years of Japanese occupation and Dutch intervention, began. In 1959, the President of the Republic, Sukarno, proclaimed a concept, the essence of which was to strengthen the role of the state in economic life. The nationalization of Dutch enterprises was carried out in the country. By 1965, the country was developing under the slogan of "Indonesian socialism", which led it to an economic crisis.
In 1965, a coup d'etat took place in Indonesia, a military dictatorship and a "new order" regime were established. Since the late 1960s, the country has proclaimed an "open model" of the economy, which provided for the widespread attraction of foreign capital. The new government began to denationalize the economy. A long-term program for the development of the economy for 30 years (1970-2000) was adopted. Its main task was to restructure the structure of the economy and raise the level of the country's socio-economic development.
In 20 years, Indonesia has overcome the economic crisis. In the structure of GDP, positive quantitative and qualitative transformations took place, which changed the nature of the economy from an agrarian-raw material economy to an agrarian-industrial one. In the mid-1990s, the industrial sector of the economy produced 40% of the country's GDP. In terms of GDP, which is estimated at 850 billion dollars (in PPP national currencies, 2000), Indonesia ranks first in Southeast Asia. It accounts for one third of the economic potential of the subregion. However, in terms of socio-economic development - only the sixth place. GDP per inhabitant here is only $4,100, which is almost three times less than the same indicator in the region.
The country's economic development strategy for a long time was based on natural resources and agricultural products. The economic policy ensured high GDP growth rates. For example, if in the 60s they did not exceed 3.5% per year, then in the 70s they already reached 7.8%.
High rates of economic growth were observed in 1980, when they reached 9.8%. Decreased significantly in the 80s, and in the early 90s rose again to 6.5%.
The level of development of industry and the rate of its growth were determined by the development of the mining industry, especially the oil industry. Modern industries developed on the basis of capital imports and the latest technology.
Industry is developing at a faster pace than other sectors of the economy. As a result, the share of industry in the creation of GDP increased to 35% (2000). The priority sectors are those that process local raw materials, ensure the development of agriculture and manufacture products that replace imports.
The sectoral structure of industry is dominated by the extractive industry, which produces 2/3 of the total gross industrial output. Until 1973, the value of gross output was dominated by the manufacturing industry. The increase in oil prices has led to a change in the ratio between the mining and manufacturing industries.
The extractive industry of Indonesia is deeply integrated into the world economy. It provides raw materials for the development of the manufacturing industry and is an important source of foreign exchange earnings.
The fuel industry occupies a leading position in the sectoral structure of the extractive industry.
Singapore is the largest port and the largest industrial center in Southeast Asia with a high standard of living. Due to its important strategic position at the crossroads of sea routes between Europe, Asia and Australia, Singapore has become one of the leading shopping centers peace. In relation to other countries of Southeast Asia, it traditionally plays the role of a “marketplace” - goods produced in neighboring countries- for example, rubber and tin from Malaysia, rice from Thailand, which are then sent to other regions. At the same time, manufactured goods are brought here from the USA, Europe, and Japan. In terms of cargo turnover, Singapore ranks second in the world. It is equipped with berths for ships various types, serves 250 lines and receives 150 ships daily. Singapore airport- a major hub of international airlines, equipped for round-the-clock flights in all weather conditions. This is one of the most modern and comfortable airports in the world, and Singapore Airlines is trusted by passengers from all over the world. Singapore annually receives 6-8 million tourists. The total length of railways is 38 km, roads - 2597 km. The monetary unit is the Singapore dollar.
Like Singapore, the Philippines and Indonesia occupy a favorable geographical position - at the crossroads of the world's water and airways linking Asia, Australia, Europe and America. But unlike Singapore, the Asian tiger, Indonesia and the Philippines are third-tier countries. The agricultural sector in the economy of these countries plays an important role. Maritime transport plays a major role in transportation. The main ports of Indonesia: Jakarta, Kupang, Palembang, Ujungpandang, Semarang, Surabaya, Cheribon. The Port of Jakarta is one of the largest ports in Asia. The leading role in the transportation of both goods and passengers in Indonesia is played by rail, road, water transport and pipeline transport.
Of the land modes of transport in the Philippines, as in Indonesia, road transport is especially important. In 1994, approx. 2300 thousand cars and motorcycles, with the latter accounting for 25% of the fleet Vehicle. The length of the road network is approximately 100,000 km, of which less than half have a modern surface (29,000 paved roads). On the island of Luzon, in addition to the railway lines with a total length of 740 km, an elevated Railway in Manila. Most of the cargo, as in other countries of the region, is transported by sea. Cargo cabotage along the coasts of the islands and between them is carried out by thousands of different ships, which have more than 500 ports at their disposal. Several dozen large ports, headed by Manila, receive ocean-going ships. Communication between the islands is also provided by 87 state airports, of which two are international: in Manila and on Mactan Island (near Cebu). The monetary unit of Indonesia is the Indonesian rupiah, the Philippines is the Philippine peso.
A peculiar feature of island Indonesia among the countries of the region is the presence land borders. Indonesia borders on East Timor (on the island of Timor, the length of the border is 228 km), Malaysia (on the island of Kalimantan, 1782 km), Papua New Guinea (on the island of New Guinea, 820 km). The total length of the borders is 2830 km. The Philippines and Singapore have no land borders.
The countries of the region participate in the following international organizations: UN, ASEAN, WTO, APEC, IBRD, ADB, ESCAP, FAO, GATT, IAEA, ICAO, ICSP, IMF, IFC, ILO, IMO, INTERPOL, IOC, ISO, ITU, IDA, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WMO. Indonesia and the Philippines are members of more organizations than Singapore: IFAD, IFC, UNESCO, UNIDO, WCT, WIPO. In addition, Indonesia is a member of OPEC, TKK, YDB, WMO and, unlike other countries in the region, is not a member of the LEFT and INTELSAT.
