Architecture ancient rome as an original art, formed by the time of the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. The architectural monuments of Ancient Rome now, even in ruins, conquer with their majesty. The Romans initiated a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings designed for huge numbers of people: basilicas, baths (public baths), theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, libraries, markets. The list of building structures of Rome should also include religious ones: temples, altars, tombs.

Throughout the ancient world, the architecture of Rome has no equal in terms of the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses, canals) as architectural objects into the urban, rural ensemble and landscape, applied new building materials and structures. They reworked the principles of Greek architecture, and above all the order system: they combined the order with an arched structure.

Equally important in the development of Roman culture was the art of Hellenism, with its architecture gravitating towards grandiose scales and urban centers. But the humanistic principle, noble grandeur and harmony, which form the basis of Greek art, in Rome gave way to tendencies to exalt the power of emperors, the military power of the empire. Hence large-scale exaggerations, external effects, false pathos of huge structures.

The variety of buildings and the scale of construction in ancient Rome vary significantly compared to Greece: a colossal number of huge buildings are being erected. All this required a change in the technical foundations of construction. Performing the most complex tasks with the help of old technology has become impossible: in Rome, fundamentally new structures are being developed and widely used - brick-concrete, which allow solving the problems of covering large spans, speeding up construction many times over, and - most importantly - limiting the use of qualified craftsmen by moving construction processes on the shoulders of low-skilled and unskilled slave workers.

Approximately in the IV century. BC e. mortar is used as a binder (first in rubble masonry), and by the II century. to p. e. a new technology for the construction of monolithic walls and vaults based on mortars and fine aggregate stone has developed. An artificial monolith was obtained by mixing mortar and sand with crushed stone called "Roman concrete". Hydraulic additions of volcanic sand - pozzolana (after the name of the area where it was taken from) made it waterproof and very durable. This caused a revolution in construction. Such laying was carried out quickly and allowed experimenting with the form. The Romans knew all the advantages of baked clay, made bricks of various shapes, used metal instead of wood to ensure the fire safety of buildings, rationally used stone when laying the foundation. Some of the secrets of Roman builders have not yet been unraveled, for example, the "Roman malt" solution is a mystery to chemists even now.

The squares of Rome and other cities were decorated with triumphal arches in honor of military victories, statues of emperors and prominent public people of the state. Triumphal arches are a permanent or temporary monumental framing of the passage (usually arched), a solemn structure in honor of military victories and other significant events. The construction of triumphal arches and columns was primarily of political importance. The 30-meter column of Trajan was decorated with a spiral frieze 200 meters long depicting the military exploits of Trajan, crowned with a statue of the emperor, at the base of which an urn with his ashes was immured.

The most significant domed structure of the ancient world is the Pantheon (from the Greek Pentheion - a place dedicated to all the gods). This is a temple in the name of all the gods, personifying the idea of ​​unity of the numerous peoples of the empire. The main part of the Pantheon is a Greek round temple, completed by a dome with a diameter of 43.4 m, through the holes of which light penetrates into the interior of the temple, striking in its grandeur and simplicity of decoration.

The basilica served as an administrative building in which the Romans spent most of the day. The second part of the day was connected with rest and took place in the baths. Baths were a complex combination of buildings and facilities associated with recreation, sports and hygiene. They contained rooms for gymnastics and athletics, halls for relaxation, conversations, performances, libraries, medical offices, baths, swimming pools, commercial premises, gardens and even a stadium. Baths accommodated about a thousand or more people.

The terms were associated with the consumption of a large amount of water, so a special branch of the water supply was connected to them - aqueducts (bridge-water supply). Heating was carried out by boiler installations in the cellars. Aqueducts brought water to Rome at a distance of several tens of kilometers. Thrown across the river beds, they presented an amazing picture of a continuous openwork arcade - one-tier, two- or even sometimes three-tier. Built of stone, with clear proportions and silhouette, these structures are wonderful examples of the unity of architectural forms and structures.

Among the public buildings of Ancient Rome, a large group is made up of spectacular buildings. Of these, the most famous to this day is the Colosseum - an amphitheater, a giant oval building in the form of a bowl. In the center there was an arena, and under the stands there were rooms for speakers. The Colosseum was built in the 70s - 90s. n. e. and accommodated 56 thousand spectators.

A large group of structures were residential buildings various types, including palaces and country villas. One-story mansions (domuses) are especially characteristic of Rome. were built and apartment buildings- insulae. The interiors of both public and residential buildings were decorated with sculpture, murals, and mosaics. The murals visually expanded the space of the premises, being a wonderful and varied decor. The floors were decorated with mosaics. An important difference between Roman decor is the great complexity and richness of forms and materials. Using various ornamental motifs, they created the most bizarre combinations, changing the construction systems, weaving additional and diverse details into the compositions.

Sculpture of Ancient Rome

In the field of monumental sculpture, the ancient Romans were far behind the Greeks and did not create monuments as significant as the Greek ones. But they enriched the plastic with the disclosure of new aspects of life, developed a new everyday and historical relief, which constituted the most important part of the architectural decor.

The best heritage of Roman sculpture was the portrait. As an independent type of creativity, it has developed since the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. The Romans understood this genre in a new way: unlike the Greek sculptors, they closely and vigilantly studied the face of a particular person with his unique features. In the portrait genre, the original realism of Roman sculptors, observation and the ability to generalize observations in a certain artistic form were most clearly manifested. Roman portraits historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their customs and ideals.

The Romans were the first to use monumental sculpture for propaganda purposes: they installed equestrian and foot statues in the forums (squares) - monuments to outstanding personalities. In honor of memorable events, triumphal structures were erected - arches and columns.

Roman! You learn to rule the peoples sovereignly. This is your art! - to impose the conditions of the world. Show mercy to the humble and humble the haughty with war.

Virgil

Ancient Rome. Hundreds of articles and books have been written about him. And this is not surprising, since there are few states that would leave such a bright mark in the history of world civilization and bequeath to their descendants such a huge cultural heritage. Its significance as a great treasury of knowledge that moves humanity forward is truly enormous.

It is not surprising that our generation is increasingly turning to Ancient Rome, not only to the history of culture, architecture, law and military affairs, but also to the history of its technology, in particular the technique and technology of building production, where much attention was paid to the construction of concrete .

Concrete could develop and become widespread only in such a strong and huge state as Ancient Rome was with its large volumes of construction work, including the construction of thousands of amphitheatres, stadiums, thermal baths, powerful fortress walls or the famous Roman roads stretching for a thousand kilometers throughout the country. and beyond. The emergence of Roman concrete reflected the growing needs and technical capabilities of ancient society. Therefore, in order to better understand their influence on the development of concrete, it is necessary to briefly become familiar with social order Ancient Rome, its politics, including construction and economics.

The growth and development of ancient Rome was not only rapid, but also unparalleled. Originating as a small military settlement on the Palatine (One of the 7 hills on which Rome arose) in the middle of the 8th century. BC e., it gradually turned into a political and Cultural Center throughout the ancient world. Its initially small territory has grown over the centuries into a huge and powerful empire with hundreds of millions of inhabitants.

The borders of Rome expanded - initially at the expense of the territory of Italy, and then neighboring countries. Foreign policy was characterized by continuous wars and was based on the famous principle of "divide and conquer".

In the 60s of the III century. BC e. The Punic Wars begin between Rome and Carthage. Intermittently, they continue for more than a hundred years. After the fall of Carthage (146 BC), when the city was set on fire and destroyed by the decision of the Roman Senate, Rome becomes the most powerful power in the entire vast territory from Egypt and Asia Minor to the British Isles. Countless riches and tens of thousands of slaves flow into it, whose labor becomes the basis of the state system, the bulwark of its power for many years. Such a policy required the construction of roads, bridges, water conduits and other engineering structures, demanded even more gold and slaves.

However, along with the slaves, sharp social contradictions also came to Rome, which often exploded with uprisings against the enslavers. When did they grow to such an extent that they turned into civil wars, the mighty Roman Republic shook and, like an old building, gave the first deep crack.

There is an urgent need for restructuring state system and it happened, bringing to the crest of the political wave of such outstanding commanders as Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Caesar. Anthony and Octavian. The latter, as you know, opens a new stage in the history of the ancient Roman state with his rule.

temples

In ancient Rome, architecture was the leading art. Unlike Greece, where the main temple was, in Roman architecture the main place was occupied by structures that embodied the ideas of the power of the Roman state, and later the emperor: forums, triumphal arches, amphitheaters. The Roman theater, unlike the Greek one, is a separate building, for the first time a stage is being built in it. One of the pinnacles of Roman architecture is the amphitheater Colosseum, which accommodated 50,000 spectators, it was intended for gladiator fights.

Yet the Romans built temples out of respect for the gods. In the cella of the Roman temple, as in the Greek temple, there was a statue of the god. The Romans preferred the more elegant Ionic and Corinthian orders, as well as the composite order, which combines elements of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, to the strict Doric style. Along the facades, except for the main one, there were no free-standing columns - the walls were smooth or decorated with semi-columns and pilasters (a pilaster is a flat vertical rectangular ledge on a wall or pillar, repeating all parts and proportions of an order column, but, unlike it, usually devoid of entasis).

Some small Roman temples, such as the Maison Carré at Nîmes, are excellently preserved due to their solid barrel-vaulted construction. The interior of such small temples was extremely simple: a room with smooth walls and a coffered ceiling, in the center stood a statue of the god to whom the temple was dedicated.

The interiors of large temples, now in ruins, are much more complex. So, for example, in the temple of Venus and Roma in Rome (135 AD) there were two halls; along the side walls there were rows of columns, between which there were decorative niches; in each hall there was an apse covered with a semi-dome, in all likelihood, statues of the gods were placed in it.

The most famous Roman temple is the grandiose and, fortunately, perfectly preserved temple of all the gods. Pantheon(c. 118-128 AD) This is a 43.5 m diameter rotunda topped with a dome. The portico with a pediment is supported by eight columns of the Corinthian order. Two additional rows of columns, four columns each, flank a magnificent bronze portal (not only original doors, but even door hinges have been preserved). The walls, 6.3 m thick, are dissected by deep niches with Corinthian columns, where statues of the gods once stood. The total height of the temple is equal to its diameter, while the height of the lower part of the chi-lindron corresponds to the height of the dome. Inside the temple, the walls are divided into two tiers - the lower one with Corinthian columns and pilasters, and the upper one with false windows. There are five rows of caissons on the dome, decreasing towards the center of the dome. The only light source is a round window in the center of the dome (oculus). The dome is made of concrete, its thickness at the oculus is 1.5 m, it increases towards the base. This is necessary for the correct distribution of gravity and thrust. The walls are made of brick and concrete, inside and outside are lined with stone. The grand dome space, the richness of the interior decoration, the bewitching play of the sun's rays - penetrating through the round window, they are reflected from the shiny surface of the marble floor - and an unusual acoustic effect make the Pantheon one of the most interesting monuments of ancient architecture.

As the Roman Empire expanded, Roman buildings became more complex and intricate. Roman places of worship, such as the temples at Baalbek, Lebanon, and Pergamon, Turkey, featured elaborate and ornate interiors. So, inside the temple of Venus in Baalbek is another temple of a smaller size.

Secular buildings

The Roman basilica is the main type in the civil architecture of Rome, which had a huge impact on the architecture of subsequent eras. Court sessions were held in the basilica, the participants of which gathered in the central nave (the nave is an elongated room, part of the interior, limited on one or both longitudinal sides by a row of columns or pillars, so called because of its resemblance to the hull of a ship); the judge sat on a dais in the apse at the end of the building. The side naves, separated by an arcade, communicated with the central nave. The side naves had a height less than the height of the central nave, which made it possible to make huge windows. The stone walls of the basilica supported a wooden roof.

As you know, the Romans inherited a lot from the Greeks. However, the love of luxury has become a defining dominant in their interiors. It was the Romans who developed the system of types of residential buildings that we still use today. This is a city palace, or simply a house (domus), then - a multi-apartment and multi-storey city residential building, which had the name "insula", and, finally, a country villa. All those original interiors that we can see today thanks to excavations in Pompeii demonstrate one type of Roman dwelling - "domus". Their luxury seems incredible even by today's standards. The Pompeii mentioned above became a storehouse of knowledge about the life of ancient culture.

Volcanic ash formed during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. e., kept the city intact for many centuries. There were many more magnificent, well-maintained houses here than, for example, in the cities of the Middle Ages and even the Renaissance. The streets are decorated with fountains and other skillfully designed reservoirs with springs: water poured either from the gaping mouth of an animal, or, for example, from an overturned vessel with a rooster sitting on it.

The houses are mostly one-story, rarely two-story and resemble small fortresses, as they face the street with deaf, windowless walls. Through the entrance portico, the visitor entered a short corridor leading directly to the atrium - the main room in the house. At the entrance to it there were home altars with images of gods and masks of ancestors. The atrium was illuminated through a hole in the roof, into which rainwater flowed, filling a shallow impluvium (pool) in the center of the room. Four columns stood at the corners of the pool, supporting the roof. The family gathered in the atrium, guests were received here. Small cubicles (bedrooms) also came out here. Directly behind the atrium was a room called the tablinum. Over time, from a niche intended for a matrimonial bed, it evolved into the front office of the owner. The tablinum contained a library of papyri and manuscripts, as well as the family's archives. On the sides of the tablinum were triclinums (tables).

In rich houses there was also a peristyle - a courtyard with an internal colonnade, where they arranged gardens with ponds and statues. Moreover, summer triclinums, extending into the peristyle, and winter triclinums, communicating with the owner's office (tablinum), differed. Peristyle, as in Greek houses, was the pride of the owners, a place of comfort and silence. It was decorated with sculpture (busts, statues, herms with portraits of philosophers), fountains, flower beds, mosaics on walls or floors.

Like the Greeks, the Romans were popular with wall paintings that created the illusion of expanding the interior space for cramped rooms. The technology of Roman wall painting was quite complex and busy. It is assumed that after applying a multi-layer primer, which contained marble crushed into powder, the painting was done using a combination of pigments prepared on wax and egg. Then there was polishing with wool, after which Punic wax melted with vegetable oil was applied with a silk brush. Following this, hot ink-nut coals were brought to the walls and the surface was again smoothed and polished with a clean cloth.

In the Roman atrium there was a hearth dedicated to the goddess Vesta, the guardian of the house. Busts of ancestors were often placed in niches - for demonstration to guests who were received here, in the atrium. Rich houses could have several atriums and several peristyles. There were also baths in the house with pools of hot (caldarium) and cold (frigidarium) water. There was a central heating system, which was carried out for a fee to the city treasury, and, of course, the famous Roman plumbing.

While the Mediterranean climate hardly required additional heating other than charcoal braziers, the inhabitants of the areas north of Rome needed protection from the winter cold. Even further north, where Hadrian's Wall, which was considered the border of the Roman Empire, passed in Britain, the Romans built houses (villas) that give us the opportunity to study the then existing heating system. The stone floor was raised above the ground to a small height with the help of supports made of bricks or stones. Under the floor was a chimney connected to the hearth. When a fire was lit in the hearth, the smoke escaped through the cellar, simultaneously heating the house; the same system was used to heat the Roman baths. The floor heated up average temperature. However, the Romans covered the walls of their houses not only with paintings. They were faced with marble, sometimes with granite. In the 1st century n. e. especially popular was this type of decor, like a mosaic. She could decorate the floor, the ceiling, and even the columns.

The decoration of the front rooms was complemented by glass and bronze items. Bronze tripods and censers; candelabra in the form of a sprawling tree, a human figure or fantastic creatures; door handles-rings with a relief image of Medusa the Gorgon, averting evil; vessels for boiling water (samovars) on three legs in the form of birds, sphinxes and animal paws were an integral part of everyday life. Outbuildings adjoined the main part of the patrician's house, located along an open rectangle or semicircle. The Romans improved the architecture of residential buildings. The Italian type of house had a courtyard surrounded by a colonnade, decorated with a fountain, statues, flower beds with fountains, pavilions, grottoes and a large pond. The villas were distinguished by their luxurious decoration, the use of marble and precious woods. The walls were decorated with complex paintings imitating columns - the so-called architectural style. At that time, the laws of perspective were already known, so there are many “tricks” in the wall paintings (framed paintings, illusory architecture, objects that seem real).

The culture of the conquered peoples also influences the Roman ornamentation. In addition to the traditional symmetrical combinations of flowers and leaves, symbolic figurines of eagles, lions, and sphinxes are used.

Furniture

The furniture was created according to Greek patterns, but with more lush ornaments. It was made of the finest woods with inserts of ivory or metal. Chairs and armchairs symbolized social status, and were not just utilitarian items.

The ancient Romans, in addition to furniture made of wood, bronze and marble, also made furniture woven from wicker rods. The general forms of ancient Roman furniture are graceful and refined, but suffer from an excess of decoration. Chairs, for example, were made with armrests in the form of griffins, sphinxes, lions. The legs were shaped like lion paws with wings ending at the top with the head of an animal. Wooden furniture was decorated with carvings, gilding, inlaid with gold and silver. There was also decorative, fixed furniture, made of white or colored marble with mosaic boards on tables.

Three beds were usually placed around the dining table. The men reclined on them (“Greek”), and the women sat on chairs. Heavy rectangular tables for meals were wooden: either on one support - in the form of a column, or on three - in the form of animal paws. In the atrium there were marble tables, decorated with carvings, on which dishes for guests were stored (silver dinner sets, bowls, goblets). At the quadrangular table, beds were placed on three sides, the fourth remained free for serving food. Three people were placed on each such bed. A table with three boxes around was called a triclinium; the room in which they had dinner also began to be called. When, at the end of the republic, round tables began to come into fashion, the boxes began to be made in a semicircular shape, and they received the name “sigma”. Round tables were fixed on three legs made in the form of animal paws, sometimes elegantly curved and richly decorated. Instead of individual legs, rectangular tables had solid sidewalls with strong relief carvings, which depicted double figures of griffins, lions, eagles, etc. The table board was sometimes made smooth, sometimes decorated with mosaics or stone inlay. Chairs with backs were called catedra, and the chair of the householder, like the imperial throne, was called solium. It was made with armrests, had high legs, its richly decorated back reached the shoulders of the person sitting, but sometimes it was made much higher. This chair usually stood on a low pedestal. The ancient Romans often replaced straight legs at tables, chairs and benches with a richly and exquisitely finished board. Often the legs were shaped like lion paws with wings ending at the top with the head of an animal. The armrests of the chairs depicted griffins, sphinx owls, lions, etc. Things were kept in chests.

Beds in ancient Rome were very similar to Greek beds. The bed frame was mostly made of wood with tortoise, ivory, stained glass inlays, as well as bronze details (lion heads, horses). Between the walls of the skeleton there was a lattice of bronze rods, on which a mattress was placed. The bed had turned legs of a rectangular or bent shape, or in the form of animal paws. A "carpet" of mosaic cubes stretched out near the bed. In the bedrooms there were small wooden or bronze tables on three legs - for lamps.

All ancient Roman furniture can be divided into two large groups:

• a) wooden furniture, decorated with carvings, gilding, inlaid wood of other colors, enamel, pieces of faience, gold and silver;
• b) decorative, fixed furniture, made of white or colored marble with mosaic boards on the tables.

In addition to these two types, bronze furniture existed. Among other bronze furnishings, numerous candelabra, lamps, tripods and other furnishings were found in these excavations. Applied art reached a high development in ancient Rome: carved and chased gold and silver bowls, glass vessels set in gold, beautiful fabrics adorned the interiors of houses in Rome. Mosaic glass pieces were a bright decorative accent in the house (the Romans used the technique of inlaying shapes with different colored pieces).

The architecture of Ancient Rome is based on two great civilizations - Greek and Etruscan. The Etruscans had excellent technologies for the construction of temples, houses, tombs. It was they who introduced the arch and vault. But, unlike the Greek ones, the Etruscan temples were built from short-lived materials, so little has survived to this day.

Etruscan arch in Perugia, Italy

However, there are objects by studying which you can get a lot of information about this culture. It is known that the supporting structure of the buildings was made of wood, bricks and terracotta coverings were used.

The Etruscan arch in Perugia is an intact example of a city gate.

Architecture of Ancient Rome: periods

Real Roman architecture, with original features that recycle Etruscan and Greek influences, is defined from the 2nd century BC.

Architecture of the Roman Monarchy

It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. At the beginning of its history, Rome was a monarchy. According to tradition, after the reign of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius ascended the throne, who improved the organization of the city. He was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, an experienced Latin warrior who conquered the nearby cities. The fourth king was Anko Marzio, who built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber.

The Etruscan rulers followed - Tarquinius Priscus ordered the market square, Foro, to be covered with stone, built numerous temples and ordered to dig the sewers of Cloaca Maximus to dump dirty water. Servius Tullius built a wall around the city.

The monarchy ended with the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, who was expelled from the city in 509 BC, and Rome became a republic.

Architecture of the Roman Republic

During the Republic, which lasted almost five centuries, Rome was always at war. After the conquest of the Etruscans and other peoples living in the territory of today's Italy, the Roman Republic conquered the territories of Greece and other countries mediterranean sea. Construction was underway. To move the army needed good roads, many of them were built. road (lat. strata) was formed from several layers (ital. strato) and its surface was covered with stone slabs.

The architecture of the period of the Roman Republic pays great attention practical and functional aspects buildings.

Architecture of the Roman Empire

After the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire in 31 BC, there was a long period of prosperity for art and architecture. Under Emperor Augustus, then under Troyan and Hadrian, the architecture of the Roman Empire reached its magnificence and played an important role in propagating power.

Extensive evidence has been preserved relating to architecture, where the Romans demonstrate excellent skills in construction techniques, sculpture (portraits, reliefs that complement architecture), painting (frescoes, mosaics).

Christian era architecture

The period of barbarian invasions marks the decline of Roman architecture. A new era is coming - the Christian one.

Main characteristics of Roman architecture

Centinate. Wooden structure to support the vaults

1. In Roman architecture, of course, there is a great continuity with Greek art- symmetry, regularity of forms, the use of architectural orders (Doric, Tuscan, Ionic and Corinthian). In fact, instead of the Doric order, the Romans used the Tuscan order ( tuscanico/toscano), which is very similar to it, the only difference was that the column was smooth, without grooves ( flute).
2. From the Etruscans the Romans adopted arches and vaults, becoming the chief specialists in their use. During the construction of the arch and vaults, a temporary wooden structure was used for support - centinature ( centinatura). From a large number of arches standing one behind the other, the Romans formed a cylindrical vault ( volta a botte), and the intersection of two barrel vaults formed a groin vault ( volta a crociera). The first builders of real domes were also the Romans. One of the most beautiful domed vaults is the Pantheon.

Dome vaults in the architecture of ancient Rome

Materials and technologies

The Romans used bricks to build walls, arches, columns, floors. Marble, as an expensive material, was used much less frequently. A variety of brick shapes - elongated, square, triangular, pyramidal - helped to create strong structures and grips.

The production of bricks was also expensive, and a lot of labor was required for masonry.

That is why they were often replaced with blocks of tufa and travertine, or other materials. To speed up the construction of the walls, the Romans began to use artificial conglomerate or Roman concrete ( calcestruzzo).

Concrete was poured into wooden formwork, compacted with a rammer and, after it hardened, the formwork was removed. This method of building walls was called opus caementicium.

When the same technology was used to fill the cavities of two load-bearing walls made of brick or stone, it was called muratura a sacco. Thus, the Romans got thick, strong walls, saving time and resources. The technique was not reflected in the aesthetics, because. the concrete part was inside.

Architecture of Ancient Rome: building walls

External masonry walls can be characterized by the main building traditions −

• opus quadratum,
• opus reticulatum,
• opus incertum,
• opus latericium.

Opus quadratum

When working with such material as soft tuff, large stones in the form of a parallelepiped were cut and arranged in rows of the same height. (opus quadratum); if hard limestone was used, such as traventino, each element took on its own polygonal shape (opus poligonalis).

Opus reticulatum

With this technique, cement was poured between walls formed by small pyramidal stone blocks, the bases of which formed a regular diamond-shaped grid.

Ancient Roman stonework: opus quadratum and opus reticulatum

Opus incertum

IN opus incertum the stones are irregularly shaped and their arrangement seems almost random.

Opus latericium

Fired bricks of a rectangular shape (about 45 cm x 30 cm) were superimposed in an alternating order. Since the era of August, its use has become more frequent. Due to the fact that over time the thickness of the bricks and their color changed, it is easy to establish the chronological order of architectural structures.

Opus mixtum

Although brick was usually used uniformly (opus testaceum), there are examples of its use with other stones and rows of other masonry, creating an opus mixtum.

Stonework of Ancient Rome: opus latericium, opus inchertum, opus mixtum

Architecture and urban planning (urban planning)

Here are two different examples -

1. the city of Rome itself, which is unique in its development,
2. and building new cities.

The layout of most ancient Roman cities was rectangular, based on the principle of temporary camps of legionnaires - castrum.

City planning of ancient Rome

Namely, settlements were broken up and built up along two main streets - cardo (oriented from north to south) and Decumanus (from east to west). The intersection of these streets was assigned to the main square of the city - Foro.

Reconstruction of the layout of the city of Rimini

Roads, water pipes, sewerage, bridges were built in cities. Various buildings were built:

• houses for living (Domus, Insulae and Villas);
• for recreation (theaters, amphitheaters, circuses and baths);
• designed to worship the gods (temples);
• for political and administrative activities (Curia and Basilica)
• and festive monuments (triumphal arches and columns).

Brief video review-reconstruction of the architecture of Ancient Rome:

FEDERAL RAILWAY TRANSPORT AGENCY

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY OF TRANSPORTATIONS"

COURSE WORK

TOPIC: "Famous architectural monuments of Ancient Rome"

Completed by: Nepomnyashchaya Valeria Aleksandrovna

Checked by: Bavina L.G.

Moscow 2012

INTRODUCTION

1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period of the VIII-VI centuries. BC

2 Temple of Saturn

3 Roman Forum

CHAPTER 2. THE ERA OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (V-I centuries BC)

2 Construction features

CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

The history of the culture of Ancient Rome is the history of the formation, development and decline of a huge state that stretched along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and included Europe in its sphere of influence, North Africa and the Front East.

Architecture was one of the most important art forms in ancient Rome. Vitruvius is probably the most important ancient Roman architect. It was he who formulated the three basic principles of ancient Roman architecture: usefulness, strength, beauty.

Architecture played a leading role in Roman art during its heyday, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, conquer with their power. The Romans laid the foundation for a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, which embodied the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people. Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in terms of the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction.

The history of the architecture of Ancient Rome is divided into three stages. The first is the early or royal era, which began in the 8th-6th centuries. BC. The second stage is the era of the republic, which began at the end of the 6th century. BC, when the Etruscan kings were expelled from Rome, and lasting until the middle of the 1st century. BC. The third stage - the imperial one - began with the reign of Octavian Augustus, who passed to autocracy, and lasted until the 5th century. AD

The purpose of this work is to study the originality of the architecture of Ancient Rome

The task of the study: to consider the features of the architecture of Ancient Rome and its characteristic features.

CHAPTER 1. EARLY OR ROYAL ROME (VIII-VI centuries BC)

1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period of the VIII-VI centuries. BC

The center of a future great power? the city of Rome? originated in Latium, in central Italy, in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. The early history of Rome is shrouded in lore and fog of legend. There are several versions of its origin, but the most common is the legend of Romulus and Remus, they were the sons of the god of war Mars and the vestal Rhea Sylvia, daughter of the king of the city of Alba Longa. The treacherous brother of the king, wanting to seize the throne, imprisoned him, and put the twins in a basket and threw him into the Tiber. However, the basket with the twins was nailed to the Capitol - a sacred hill, where the she-wolf nursed the babies with her milk. When the boys grew up, they returned the throne to their grandfather, and they themselves decided to found a new city. His main temple they erected on Capitol Hill. Outlining the boundaries of the city, the brothers quarreled, and Romulus killed Remus, becoming the sole ruler of the city and giving him his name. It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. e.

The development of Rome took place under Etruscan influence. Many Etruscan achievements were borrowed, for example, in the field of construction, various crafts. Rome borrowed writing, Roman numerals, methods of interpretation and divination, and much more.

According to legend, in Rome in the VIII-VI centuries. 7 kings ruled: Romulus, Numa Pomp Tullus Gostilius, Ankh Marcius, Tarkv the Ancient, Servius Tullius, Tarquim the Proud. Of particular importance in the history of early Rome and its culture is the reign of the last three Roman kings, who, according to scientists, came from the Etruscans, but, unlike the other kings, were real historical figures.

The art of the Etruscans, who lived in the first millennium BC. e. end of VIII - I centuries. BC e. on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, left a significant mark in the history of world culture and greatly influenced the ancient Roman artistic activity. Having conquered the Etruscans, the Romans accepted their achievements and continued what the Etruscans had begun in their architecture, plastic arts and painting.

Under the Etruscan dynasty, Rome began to change. Work was carried out to drain the once marshy Forum, where shopping arcades and porticos were built. On the Capitoline Hill, a temple of Jupiter was erected by craftsmen from Etruria with a pediment decorated with a quadriga. Rome turned into a large populous city with powerful fortifications, beautiful temples and houses on stone foundations. Under the last king? Tarquinia Proudly, the main underground sewer pipe was built in Rome? The great sewer, which serves the "eternal city" to this day.

Works of Etruscan art were created mainly in the area bounded from the north by the Arno River, and from the south by the Tiber, but there were also significant art workshops in the Etruscan cities to the north of these borders, Marzabotto, Spina and to the south of Praeneste, Velletri, Satrik.

Etruscans are famous modern man, perhaps more with their art than with any other forms of activity, since much in their history, religion, culture, including writing that is not yet fully understood, remains mysterious.

The culture of the Etruscans testifies to their considerable artistic talent. Their art is original, although traces of Asia Minor, later Greek influences can be distinguished in it. He is characterized by a desire for realism, so noticeable in the paintings of the tombs of the Etruscan nobility. Etruscan artists do not care about the transfer of details, but pay all attention to the most essential features of the depicted. If the Roman portrait reached an unprecedented artistic perfection, then it was due to the assimilation of the Etruscan heritage by the Roman masters. The so-called false dome, rows of stone beams or bricks gradually converging inside, was already used in architecture in the Minoan and Mycenaean periods, but only the Etruscans began to build vaults from wedge-shaped beams, thus creating a dome in the proper sense of the word. The largest number The surviving monuments of Etruscan art date back to the 6th - early 5th centuries. BC e. At this time, Etruria experienced a strong influence of Greek culture, and during the same period, Etruscan art experienced its heyday.

An important place in Etruscan art was occupied by sculpture, the heyday of which dates back to the 6th century BC. BC e. The most famous Etruscan sculptor was Vulka, who worked in Veii; he owns a monumental terracotta statue of Apollo from Vei.

One of these works of the VI century. BC e. is the famous statue of the Capitoline she-wolf. The she-wolf is depicted feeding Romulus and Remus. In this sculpture, the viewer is struck not only by observation in the reproduction of nature. No wonder the statue of the Capitoline she-wolf in subsequent eras was perceived as a vivid symbol of the harsh and cruel Rome.

The artisans of Etruria were famous for their work in gold, bronze and clay. Etruscan potters used a special technique of the so-called buccheronero - black earth: the clay was pumped, thus acquiring a black color.

After molding and firing, the product was subjected to burnishing-polishing by friction. This technique was inspired by the desire to make earthenware vessels look like more expensive metal vessels. Their walls were usually decorated with relief images, and sometimes a rooster or other figures were placed on the covers.

The main symbol of the power of Rome is the Forum. Even before the Etruscan invasion, the area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills became a kind of center of culture and civilization, which both geographically and spiritually united the Latin tribes who lived at the foot of the seven hills.

Having restored the Etruscan temple of Castor and Pollux in accordance with the canons of Hellenistic architecture, the Republicans built the Basilica of Emilia and Tabularium, where they launched their activities, respectively, the tribunal and the state archive, paving the entire space of the Forum with travertine slabs. The restructuring of the Roman Forum, begun by Julius Caesar and continued by Augustus, contributed to the ordering of a rather chaotic ensemble.

In accordance with the geometric layout of city squares surrounded by columns, adopted in Hellenistic cities, the new building plan proceeded from the axial principle and rationalized the hitherto free pattern of the republican forum ensemble. Temples and basilicas, built in accordance with the new design, glorified the power of Rome to the whole world.

2 Temple of Saturn

The oldest part of the Roman Forum is the Temple of Saturn. The temple of Saturn was preceded by a very ancient altar, which legend refers to the mythical city founded by Saturn himself on the Capitol. The possibility of the existence of a village on a hill since prehistoric times and the antiquity of the religious cult itself confirm this legend to some extent. The construction of the temple of Saturn was a tribute to the god Saturn, whom the Romans identified with the Greek god Kronos and revered for his ability to rid the city of disasters.

The construction of the temple may have been started already in the tsarist period. Its discovery was carried out only in the first years of the Republic, possibly in 498 BC. e.

The building was completely rebuilt starting from 42 BC. e., by Munacius Plancus, and restored after a fire that broke out during the reign of Carinus 283 AD. e. It is likely that the surviving part belongs to this restoration - eight columns, six columns of gray granite along the facade and two of red granite on the sides, and the main pediment, largely built from restored material. The inscription, which is still visible on the frieze, recalls that this restoration was carried out due to the fire Senatus populusque romanus incendio consumptum restituit - the Senate and the people of Rome restored what was destroyed by fire.

It was the only temple in Rome where believers could enter with an open head, and the first temple in which they began to burn wax candles. Here was kept a statue of the god Saturn, which was worn during processions on the occasion of triumphal celebrations.

3 Roman Forum

One of the main attractions of Rome. Since ancient times, the Roman Forum has been the place where people came to learn political news, exchange impressions, and conclude a successful trade deal.

The Roman Forum arose during the time of the first Roman kings, around the 7th century BC, when local residents began to gather on the space between the hills of the Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal.

The Forum, located in a valley between three hills - the Palatine, the Capitol and the Esquiline, was in ancient times a desert marshland, which was drained during the reign of King Tarquinius the Ancient due to large-scale works on the construction of sewers and the laying of a stone Great sewer connected to a drainage system. After the drainage of the region, the construction of the Forum began, one part of which was intended for shops, the other for public ceremonies, religious holidays, elections to the chancellery and magistrates, for oratory stands and sentencing of the convicted.

In the center of the Forum stands a tall memorial column, the Phocas Column, which is a Corinthian column erected in front of the Rostra in the Roman Forum and dedicated in 608 to the Byzantine emperor Phocas.

The column, 13.6 m high, was mounted on a quadrangular white marble pedestal, originally used in the monument in honor of Diocletian. At the top of the column, there used to be a statue of the emperor in gilded bronze - until Foka was overthrown in 610, after which the place began to slowly desolate.

CHAPTER 2. THE ERA OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (V-I centuries BC)

1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period V-I centuries. BC

Only a few architectural monuments have survived from the republican period in the history of Ancient Rome. In construction, the Romans mainly used four architectural orders: Tuscan, borrowed from the Etruscans, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Roman temples resembled Greek architecture in their rectangular shape and use of porticoes, but unlike Greek temples, they were grander and tended to be erected on high podiums. In the V-IV centuries. BC. in Roman construction, mainly soft volcanic tuff was used. Later, in the Republican period, fired brick and marble were widely used. In the II century. BC. Roman builders invented concrete, which caused the widespread distribution of arched-vaulted structures that transformed all ancient architecture.

In addition to the peripter, the type of rotunda, that is, a round temple, was also used in Roman temple architecture. This was one of the oldest Roman temples? temple of Vesta or Hercules, located in the Forum.

A variety of arches and arched structures were a characteristic element of Roman architecture. But the Romans did not refuse the columns? they decorated public buildings, for example, the huge theater of Pompey, the first stone theater in Rome in the 1st century BC. BC. Very popular in Roman architecture were free-standing columns erected, for example, in honor of military victories.

A very characteristic type of Roman structures were the arcades? a series of arches supported by pillars or columns.

Arcades were used in the construction of open galleries running along the wall of a building, such as a theater, as well as in aqueducts? multi-tiered stone bridges, inside which were hidden lead and clay pipes supplying water to the city. A specifically Roman type of building was the triumphal arch, which was most widely used in the era of the Empire as a monument of military and imperial glory.

In the middle of the 1st c. BC. the first majestic marble buildings appeared in Rome. Julius Caesar ordered the construction of a new Forum in Rome, worthy of the capital of a great power. Was Caesar's Basilica built there? a rectangular building intended for court hearings, trading operations and public meetings, similar to the Roman basilica, Christian churches were built in the Middle Ages. A temple was also erected at the Forum in honor of Venus, the patroness of the Julius family.

The main streets and squares of the city of Rome, later in the Republican period, were decorated with magnificent marble statues, mostly copies of Greek masters. Thanks to this, the works of famous Greek sculptors have come down to us: Myron, Polykleitos, Praxiteles, Lysippus.

The central commercial and public square of the city, the Roman Forum, is being improved, where public meetings, fairs were held, and courts were held. It expands, new public buildings and temples are built around it, its porticos are paved with tiles. Here was the center of the political life of the capital of the world, decorated over the centuries with basilicas for meetings, temples and memorial buildings.

By the II century. BC e. there was a building on the plain, bounded by three hills (Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal). Subsequently, five more forums joined the Roman Forum: Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan. Now it's a field of ruins huge complex Roman forums of the times of the republic and the early empire.

New types of public buildings appear. Very dense building of the urban area, overcrowding and tightness could not but cause the need for special green areas - parks located on the outskirts of the city. So the magnificent gardens of Sallust and Lucullus appeared. The city was divided into quarters, the quarters were grouped into districts. Not only Rome, but also small towns, for example, Pompeii turn into the 1st c. BC. to comfortable, cultural centers with various buildings, beautiful squares, cobbled streets, a stone theater and an amphitheater, a circus, numerous shops and taverns.

As a result of the Roman conquests, various kinds of wealth flowed into Rome and the Italian cities. This caused the rise of Roman architecture. The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bstrength, power and greatness that suppresses a person. From here was born the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their structures, which amaze the imagination with their size. Another feature of Roman architecture is the desire for lavish decoration of buildings, rich decorations, a lot of decorations, a greater interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation of predominantly not temple complexes, but buildings and structures for practical needs - bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths. .

2 Construction features

Of the public buildings, the most important in ancient Rome was the basilica, where the court met and trade deals were concluded. The rectangular volumes of the basilicas of the republican period at the forum in Pompeii and the imperial basilicas at the forum of Grajan in Rome consisted of five aisles separated by columns: a very wide central one and four narrower ones that carried galleries of the second tier. The tribunal, where the court was held, had the shape of a huge semicircle, the diameter of which occupied one of the narrow sides and was separated from the rest of the basilica by a portico. The entrance was a passage, probably had no overlap, remaining under open sky. The basilicas were always crowded and lively: the court was in session, orators spoke, trade deals were concluded. The atmosphere that reigned there is evidenced, for example, by such an inscription preserved on the wall of the Pompeian basilica.

The circuses were built according to the model, which was the grandiose Roman circus Massimo, built in the era of the republic. The stone stands arranged in tiers had the shape of an ellipse. The entrance was located on its curvature and was marked by massive triumphal arches. The center of the field along the length was occupied by a high podium, decorated with statues, obelisks and columns. The stone pillars standing at the ends - metas - served as a guide for the drivers.

The amphitheaters were circular structures. Massive semi-circular arches made of hewn stone, the so-called Roman cells, arranged in two or three tiers, surrounded the open arena.

Stone seats rose in tiers from the arena. An exceptional place among structures of this kind was occupied by the four-story Flavian amphitheater in Rome (Colosseum), the construction of which began in 75 AD. e. under the emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty. The performance in the Colosseum could be watched by 50,000 spectators at the same time. Through the open arcade of the first floor, they evenly penetrated inside and got into their places along 60 stairs. The seats in the first, lower tier were intended for the privileged class - senators, priests, vestals and judges, here was the emperor's tribune; in the second - for citizens; in the third - for the plebs; the fourth floor was reserved for standing room for slaves. In the dungeon under the arena there were chambers for gladiators, cages for animals, rooms where the corpses of the dead were demolished. For the battle of gladiators, the arena was covered with sand, for a naval battle it was filled with water using the aqueduct sleeve that approached the building. Inside the building was lined with marble, outside - limestone tufa and decorated with columns - one on the plane of the wall between the arched openings. On the ground floor, these are Tuska order columns, squat and massive. The second floor is surrounded by graceful, slender columns of the Ionic order, the third - even higher Corinthian, the fourth - Corinthian order pilasters. This arrangement of columns provides a visual effect in which the building, massive from below, seems less heavy and taller. The gaps of the arches were once filled with majestic marble statues of Roman gods and senators. The grandiose look was completed by a silk awning stretched over the arena on hot or rainy days.

3 Famous monuments of the Republican period

ancient roman architecture monument road

From most of the republican churches, and there were several dozen of them in Rome, not even ruins survived. The most famous are grandiose structures, the ancient defensive walls of Rome, which arose back in the 8th century. BC. on three hills: the Capitol, the Palatine and the Kviripal, made of stone early - VI century. BC. and the so-called Servian Wall - 378-352. BC.

Roman roads were important strategic importance, they united different parts of the country. The Appian Way leading to Rome, VI-III centuries. BC. for the movement of cohorts and messengers was the first of a network of roads that later covered all of Italy. Near the Aricci valley, the road, paved with a thick layer of concrete, rubble, lava and tuff slabs, went because of the terrain along a massive wall 197 m long, 11 m high, dissected in the lower part by three through arched spans for mountain waters.

Gradually, in the following centuries, Rome becomes the most water-rich city in the world. Powerful bridges and aqueducts, the aqueduct of Appius Claudius, 311 BC, the aqueduct of Marcius, 144 BC, running tens of kilometers, took a prominent place in the architecture of the city, in the appearance of its picturesque surroundings, being an integral part of landscape of the Roman Campagna.

The most ancient vaulted structures include the sewer canal of the cesspool of Maximus in Rome, which has survived to this day. Public life took place in the market square. The Romans had a forum. All major city events took place here: meetings, councils, important decisions were announced here, children were educated, traded, it served as an arena for political activity, popular meetings, military triumphs.

The architectural ensemble included temples, basilicas, shops of merchants, markets. The squares were decorated with statues of famous citizens, politicians and were surrounded by columns and porticoes.

The oldest forum in Rome is the republican forum Romanum VI century BC. to which all roads converged. Now only the foundations of buildings remain from the Forum Romanum; its original appearance is a reconstruction.

In the last centuries of the republic, the forum acquired a complete architectural appearance. On one side it adjoined the imposing building of the state archive - the Tabularium, which stood on vaulted underground floors. It was a completely new type of public building, and the fact that it appeared for the first time among the Romans speaks of their exceptional respect for history.

Outside, the Tabularium was decorated with a Greek order, but inside it consisted of a system of vaulted rooms. From the forum to the Capitol led long staircase Tabularia of 67 steps. Such corridors and stairs are often found in republican buildings. They create the impression of a huge space covered by the architecture. But at the same time, all forms are clearly visible in their perspective reduction: the smallest arch or step is perfectly visible, the farthest goal is achievable.

Temples rose on the square, among them the temple of Vesta, the virgin goddess, in which an unquenchable fire burned, symbolizing the life of the Roman people. Columns also rose here, to which rosters were attached - the noses of defeated enemy ships, hence the name - the rostral column, and the "sacred road" passed along which there were taberns - shops of jewelers and goldsmiths. In the era of the republic, especially in the V-II centuries. BC, the temple is the main type of public building. It developed gradually as a result of crossing the prevailing local Italo-Etruscan traditions with Greek ones adapted to local conditions. Round and quadrangular pseudo-peripters were built with an entrance only from the main facade. The round temple - the monoptera consisted of a cylindrical base surrounded by a colonnade. The entrance was according to the Etruscan custom from one end side.

Round temple of the Sibyl or Vesta in Tivoli, 1st century BC. BC, near Rome, surrounded by Corinthian columns. The frieze is decorated with reliefs depicting a traditional Roman motif - bull skulls, "bucranii", from which heavy garlands hang. It was a symbol of sacrifice and remembrance. The order in such temples was distinguished by the rigidity of the pattern and dryness: the columns lost their plasticity inherent in Greece.

The Greek round peripter usually had a stepped base and was designed for all-round viewing. The Temple of the Sibyl in Tivoli, like the Etruscan temples, combines a frontal strictly symmetrical longitudinal axial composition and a round one. The axis of the temple is emphasized by the main entrance with steps, a door and windows located in front of it. The massive vaulted base of the temple in Tivoli creates a transition from the stone cliff, which it picturesquely completes, to the graceful round rotunda of the Corinthian order with a light frieze of garlands. Raised on a high base, harmonious in proportions, with a slender and strict colonnade filled with light, the temple dominates the landscape. Its calm harmonious forms contrast with the turbulent cascade of the waterfall.

Rectangular Roman temples also differed from order Greek ones, as shown by the well-preserved Temple of Fortuna Virilis at the Bull Forum in Rome (1st century BC) - a unique example of an early completed Roman temple of the pseudoperipter type with a closed frontal axial composition. The Greek peripter in it is divided into a deep front portico open on all sides and a cella surrounded by semi-columns merging with the wall. Accentuating the main façade with a portico with free-standing columns and a grand entrance staircase, the architect combined it with a closed Ionic cella. He, too, has an entrance from only one side, the Ionic columns end with capitals of a modest design. The pediment is completely "non-Greek", without sculptures inside its tympanum and with rich, strictly drawn profiles.

Magnificent Roman bridges of the 1st century. BC. Thus, the Mulvia bridge, in addition to its practical merits (it stood for more than two thousand years, is distinguished by its expressive image. The bridge visually, as it were, rests on the water in semicircles of arches, the supports between which are cut by high and narrow openings to lighten the weight. On top of the arches lies a cornice, giving the bridge a special The bridge seems to be striding from shore to shore in continuous arches: it is dynamic and stable at the same time.

The originality of Roman architecture was reflected in the creation of a new type of private residential building for wealthy landowners, merchants, and artisans. Roman mansions are mostly one-story houses in which the comfort of family life was combined with adaptability to business life.

Partially, the appearance of the Roman city can be represented by the example of Pompeii, an Italian city that perished in 79 AD. from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

The city buried under the ashes was accidentally discovered during the construction of a water pipe in the 17th century. From 1748 to the present day, its excavations continue. The city had a regular layout. The straight streets were framed by the facades of houses, at the bottom of which taber shops were set up. The vast forum was surrounded by a beautiful two-story colonnade. There were the sanctuary of Isis, the temple of Apollo, the temple of Jupiter, a large amphitheater, built, like the Greeks, in a natural depression. Designed for twenty thousand spectators, it significantly exceeded the needs of the inhabitants of the city and was also intended for visitors. There were two theaters in the city.

Remarkable Pompeian houses - "domuses". These were rectangular structures that stretched along the courtyard, and faced the street with blank end walls. The main room was an atrium from lat. atrium - “smoky”, “black”, i.e. a room blackened with soot, which performed a sacred function. At its foundation, Rome had a cult pit in the very center - “mundus”, where all the inhabitants threw fruits and a handful of earth from their old homeland. It opened only once a year - on the day of the Underground Goddess, or did not open at all. Each house repeated this model: the atrium often had a hole in the center of the roof - the compluvium. Under it was a pool for collecting water, akin to the mundus, the impluvium.

In general, the atrium served as a "pillar of the world", connecting every Roman house with heaven and the underworld. It is no coincidence that all the most important things stood in the atrium: a heavy chest with family valuables, an altar-type table and a cabinet for storing wax masks of ancestors and images of good patron spirits - lares and penates.

CHAPTER 3. THE ERA OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE (I century BC? V century AD)

1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period of the 1st century. BC. ?V c. AD

The imperial period began at the end of the 1st century. BC e., when Roman state changed from an aristocratic republic to the Roman Empire. The development of architecture in the imperial period can be divided into three stages.

Architecture of the first stage of the imperial period (I century BC - I century AD), which is characterized by the strengthening of imperial power, was distinguished by the simplicity of compositional solutions. The model for her was the work of Greek classical architecture. Among the main monuments is the forum of Augustus with the temple of Mars Ultor (Avenger). The Corinthian columns of the temple are placed closely, with an intercolumnium (the distance between the columns) of 1.5 column diameters. A structural system based on the combination of baked bricks with the so-called Roman lime concrete in walls and ceilings is gaining wide acceptance. Brick was introduced in the form of arches or layers, alternating with concrete layers, which made it possible to build vaults and domes of a large span. Outside, the buildings were faced with travertine or marble, inside the walls were plastered and painted.

The second stage of the imperial period (II century AD) is called the golden age of the Roman Empire. During this period, the architect Apollodorus of Damascus built the largest architectural ensemble of Ancient Rome - the Forum of the Roman Emperor Trajan, which was distinguished not only by its size and variety of compositional solutions, but also by the richness of its decoration. The five-nave basilica of Ulpia is elongated parallel to the transverse axis of the Forum. The huge 38-meter column is entwined with a continuous ribbon of reliefs depicting the victorious campaigns of Trajan.

A new type of public building for the court, commercial transactions has appeared - the Greek basilica. basilike - royal house. The rectangular building in plan was divided into three to five naves by rows of columns, with the middle nave being higher than the side ones. a volume covered by a spherical dome 43.2 m in diameter with a light hole in the center. The interior is finished with polychrome marble

At the third stage of the imperial period (3rd century AD), architecture was characterized by an increased interest in the decorative beginning, a grandiose scale. So, the baths of Caracalla were built - a complex complex of public baths for 1800 people, including pools, baths, libraries, shops, etc., the grandiose baths of Diocletian - a huge rectangular building with rooms covered with domes.

In the Alpine and Danube provinces from the 1st c. n. e. many cities grew according to the Roman type - with arches, temples, amphitheatres. In the II century. n. e. the Syrian city of Palmyra acquires great importance. His architectural structures distinguished by the ancient oriental splendor of decorative elements. Not far from Palmyra was the cultural center of Baalbek - the sanctuary of the Roman local gods (I-III centuries AD) - colossal in size. So, the height of the Corinthian columns of the temple of Jupiter is about 20 m.

It should be noted that in the principles of building the plan of the Parthenon, which have been identified by architectural historians, there are not only features of ancient traditions, but also some innovations that can be considered the birth of new traditions. The Greeks used the ancient methods of proportioning, but gave them their own proportionality. The square, which was the basis of the plan of the Parthenon, had absolute dimensions, already calculated in Greek measures of length. This is one hundred Greek feet, which in modern terms is 30.86 m. This fact has a special, truly epochal significance. From this time until the end of the period of Antiquity, all the main buildings of their time and their state system were built on the basis of a square with a side of one hundred Attic feet. This proportionality can be identified in the construction of the composition of the plans of the Pantheon in Rome and the church of Hagia Sophia of Constantinople.

The Roman Pantheon (118-128) is a building of the period when the Roman Empire was moving towards the apogee of its development. It was conceived and built as a unique, one-of-a-kind building. Emperor Adrian himself was directly involved in the idea of ​​building the Pantheon (this information is legendary and, of course, not conclusive, but even in this form it is very eloquent). The Pantheon became the architectural embodiment of the core religious idea of ​​imperial Rome about uniting the beliefs and deities of different peoples. The spatial composition of the Pantheon building is very simple. The volume is extremely close to a simple geometric shape, or, one might say, consists of simple geometric elements.

The main volume of the temple can be imagined as a thick-walled cylinder with an inner diameter of 43.2 m and a wall thickness of about six meters.

The cylindrical volume is covered by a hemispherical dome. The dome has a hemispherical shape only in the interior, from the outside it looks completely different. The height of the cylindrical part is calculated so that if the generatrix of the hemisphere of the dome is extended downward, then it will have to touch the ground. Figuratively, the hemisphere of the dome of the Pantheon symbolizes the sky, and the entire interior - the universe, because pagan deities exist not only in heaven, but also on earth. The impression made by this building on the viewer is truly stunning. Of course, both the geometric construction and the effect of influencing a person, all this did not happen by chance, but was originally laid down in the ideological and artistic “program” of the temple by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The ideological background is also read in the application of some architectural techniques. As you know, the supreme god of the host of Latin gods is Jupiter, an analogue of the Greek Zeus. But in the ideas of the supreme deity among the Greeks and Romans, there were serious differences. The views of the Romans were influenced by the heritage of the Etruscans, whose deities did not have an anthropomorphic image. Jupiter was identified with the light of the sky. Therefore, the main element of the dome was the opion - a round hole in the zenith of the dome. When on a sunny day a column of dazzling light burst into the twilight of the temple, the believers imagined that this was Jupiter, who had entered the temple. The image of the inner space of the Pantheon, created by Roman architects, is one of the strongest in world architecture for the entire time of its existence.

Strictly speaking, round temples (tholos) were built earlier, already in classical Greece. Round temples dedicated to all the gods were created in the Hellenistic era, and in Rome the first cylindrical Pantheon was built at the end of the 1st century BC. by the order of Agripa.

All these buildings were not so impressive in size, and, apparently, not so impressive in their architectural design. However, the fact that the idea itself was already in the air should be remembered. The fact that the plan of the Pantheon is based on a hundred-foot square, the inner circle of the plan of the Pantheon is described around this square, is also not accidental.

This is a continuation of the tradition, a declaration of inextricable ties with the culture of the previous era. It should not be forgotten that until the early period of the Empire, Rome was not at all a leader in the field of culture and art, following the paths that were blazed by the Etruscans, the Hellenized peoples of the Italic peninsula (for example, the Samnites, whose cities the Romans eventually rebuilt and turned into their own). In fact, the proportions of the Pantheon are not limited to one hundred feet square. The entire Pantheon is strictly proportioned, almost all of its elements can be calculated and built in a geometric way. However, these proportional patterns are less important for us, since they are of a secondary, auxiliary nature.

The Roman Pantheon was conceived and built as a unique temple. There were other unique buildings in Rome: the Colosseum, the Tabularium, the giant baths of Diocletian, Caracalla. But all these structures are unique in a completely different way. The functional scheme of the Colosseum differs little from those used in other large circuses. At the heart of the volume-spatial structure of all amphitheaters was a typical element - an arch-order cell. From such cells, as from a designer, many Roman public buildings, circuses, theaters, some administrative buildings, such as the Tabularium, were “assembled”. In other words, the uniqueness of the Colosseum, only in its extraordinary size.

The Colosseum is the largest among many great amphitheatres, the first among equals comparable to it.

The provinces flourished. The Roman Empire became the slave-owning empire of the Mediterranean. Rome itself acquired the appearance of a world power. End of I and beginning 2nd century n. e. the period of the reign of the Flavians and Trajan, the time of the creation of grandiose architectural complexes, structures of large spatial scope.

Until now, the ruins of the giant palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine (I century AD) amaze with their severe grandeur.

The epitome of the power and historical significance of imperial Rome were the triumphal structures glorifying the military victories of Rome. Triumphal arches and columns were erected not only in Italy, but also in the provinces to the glory of Rome. Roman buildings were active conductors of Roman culture and ideology there.

Arches were built for various reasons - both in honor of victories and as a sign of the consecration of new cities. However, their primary meaning is associated with a triumph - a solemn procession in honor of the victory over the enemy. Passing through the arch, the emperor returned to hometown already in a new quality. The arch was the boundary of one's own and another's world. At the entrance to the Roman Forum, in memory of the victory of the Romans in the Jewish War, a marble statue was erected. Triumphal Arch Titus (81 AD), who suppressed the revolt in Judea. Titus, who was considered a sensible and full of nobility emperor, reigned for a relatively short time (79-81). Perfect in form, sparkling with whiteness, a single-span arch 15.4 m high, 5.33 m wide served as the basis for the sculptural group of the emperor on a chariot.

2 The Colosseum is an architectural masterpiece.70-80s. n. uh

The Colosseum is the largest of the ancient Roman amphitheatres, the famous monument of ancient Rome and one of the most remarkable buildings in the world. For a long time, the Colosseum was for the inhabitants of Rome and visitors the main place of entertainment spectacles, such as gladiator fights, animal persecution, sea battles (naumachia). It is located in a hollow between the Esquiline, Palatine and Caelievsky hills, in the place where there was a pond that belonged to the Golden House of Nero. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheater because it was the collective building of the Flavian emperors.

Like other Roman amphitheaters, the Flavian Amphitheater is an ellipse in plan, the middle of which is occupied by the arena and the surrounding concentric rings of seats for spectators. The Colosseum differs from all structures of this kind in its size. This is the most grandiose ancient amphitheater: the length of its outer ellipse is 524 m, the length of the arena is 85.75 m, its width is 53.62 m, the height of its walls is from 48 to 50 meters. With such dimensions, it could accommodate about 50 thousand spectators.

The walls of the Colosseum were erected from large pieces or blocks of travertine stone or travertine marble, which was mined in the nearby city of Tivoli. The blocks were interconnected by steel ties with a total weight of approximately 300 tons; local tuff and brick were also used for the internal parts. The Flavian Amphitheater was built on a concrete foundation 13 meters thick.

The architectural and logistics solution used in the Colosseum and called vomitoria from lat. vomere "spewing", is still used in the construction of stadiums: many entrances are located evenly around the entire perimeter of the building.

Thanks to this, the public could fill the Colosseum in 15 minutes and leave in 5. The Colosseum in Rome had 80 entrances, of which 4 were intended for the highest nobility. These seats were arranged around the entire arena in the form of rows of stone benches rising one above the other. The lower row, or podium, was assigned exclusively to the emperor, his family, senators and vestals, and the emperor had a special, elevated seat.

The podium was separated from the arena by a parapet high enough to protect spectators from the attack of animals released on it. This was followed by places for the public, forming three tiers, corresponding to the tiers of the facade of the building. In the first tier, which included 20 rows of benches, the city authorities and persons belonging to the estate of horsemen sat, the second tier, which consisted of 16 rows of benches, was intended for people with the rights of Roman citizenship. The wall separating the second tier from the third was quite high, while the benches of the third tier were located on a steeper slope, this device was intended to give visitors to the third tier the opportunity to better see the arena and everything that happens in it. The spectators of the third tier belonged to the lower classes.

On the roof of the Colosseum, during the performances, the sailors of the imperial fleet were placed, sent to stretch a huge awning over the amphitheater to protect the audience from the scorching rays of the sun or from bad weather. This awning was attached with ropes to the masts placed along the upper edge of the wall. All arched spans of the second and third floors were decorated with statues that have not survived to this day. On the platform in front of the amphitheater stood a thirty-meter bronze statue of Nero, called the Colossus. It is believed that the name Colosseum - colossal - came just from this colossus. The construction of the amphitheater was begun by the emperor Vespasian after his victories in Judea. Construction was completed in 80 by Emperor Titus.

The Colosseum has long been considered a symbol of the greatness of Rome. The Colosseum was a theater of magnificent spectacles, where many animals were killed. But already in 405, Emperor Honorius banned gladiator fights, and later animal persecution was also banned. The Colosseum ceased to be the main arena of Rome. At the end of the 13th century, the Colosseum in Rome was turned into a quarry. Houses, churches were built from it, in 1495 the chancery of the pope was built from the material of the Colosseum, and in the 16th century bridges were built from the squares of the “giant”.

Subsequently, the arena of the legendary Roman amphitheater has long been associated with the torment of early Christians. So, in 1744, the Colosseum was consecrated in memory of Christian martyrs who died here in battle with wild animals in front of rampaging Roman crowds. A cross still stands in the center of the Colosseum. In the XXI century, the Colosseum in Rome was among the contenders for the title of one of the seven New Wonders of the World, and according to the results of the vote, which were announced on July 7, 2007, it was recognized as one of the 7 New Wonders of the World.

3 Pantheon - temple of all gods 125 AD

An outstanding building, which had a centric round plan, is the Roman "temple of all the gods" of the Roman Empire Pantheon (125 AD) - the most beautiful and best preserved monument of ancient Rome. This most perfect example of a grandiose rotunda temple under the emperor Hadrian was rebuilt from a round pool by Apollodorus of Damascus, the author of the largest architectural ensemble Ancient Rome - Forum of Trajan. The Pantheon can accommodate more than two thousand people.

Its space is covered by a dome of a bold design with a diameter of 43 m, which remained unsurpassed until the 2nd half of XIX V. and served as a model of domed construction for all subsequent centuries.

The design of the Pantheon testifies to the flourishing of architectural thought in ancient Rome. Its beauty is in the harmonious combination of clear volumes: the cylinder of the rotunda, the hemisphere of the dome and the parallelepiped of the portico.

The walls of the rotunda rest on a concrete foundation 4.5 m deep and 7.3 m thick. The thickness of the walls is 6.3 m. The rotunda wall consists of eight supports - pylons connected by arches. The portico with two rows of eight columns looks like the threshold of the temple - pronaos. Impressive monolithic columns without flutes are carved from red Egyptian granite, and their capitals and bases are from Greek marble. With its splendor, the portico masks the heavy cylinder of the temple. Protruding strongly into the small square in front of the Pantheon, it seems especially large and hides the colossal massive rotunda of the temple behind it.

The artistic image of the Pantheon is based on a strict calculation. The diameter of the rotunda is equal to the total height of the inner space of the temple 43 m, so that if a ball is inscribed in its space, half of it forms a dome.

In the perfect harmonic forms of a circle and a ball, the architect embodies the idea of ​​complete rest, creates the impression of a special, sublime grandeur. The interior of the temple - marble facings and stucco decorations - is unusually solemn. Outside, the first tier of the rotunda is faced with marble, the two upper tiers are plastered.

The dome of the Pantheon reaches a diameter of 43 m, and its thickness is about 1 m, it was not surpassed by the domes of the temples of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the New Age, until the end of the 19th century. The upper area of ​​the dome is made of pumice concrete to reduce the weight of the dome. For lighting in the center of the dome, a round hole with a diameter of 9 m was left. The building outside is unusually massive. A solid fifty-six meters in diameter ring of blank walls closes it. The dome seems to be pressed into these walls, passing to them in rows of flat ledges. The construction forms a monolithic block, under the weight of which, it seems, the earth has caved in. The deep portico does nothing to mitigate this powerful effect of gravity. Its columns rise almost fifteen meters high. Their solid trunks are carved from dark red Egyptian granite. Their Corinthian marble capitals have blackened with time, giving the structure a somewhat gloomy splendor.

The inner space of the ancient temple is huge, solemn, but filled with a soft, pacifying light. The diameter of the round hall is slightly more than forty-three meters. The walls lined with marble are cut with deep niches, sometimes rectangular, sometimes semicircular. The colonnades separating them from the main part of the hall form openwork curtains, allowing this space to preserve perfectly rounded borders, but at the same time not to be geometrically closed.

The ring-shaped overlaid entablature and the attic tier dissected by panels above it smoothly describe the circumference of the hall, interrupted, however, by the entrance arch and the conch of the main exedra in the depths.

The vertical columns, pilasters, panels attract the eye to the hemispherical dome crowning the hall, in which the entire space of the temple is brought to an unprecedented harmonious unity.

The dome of the Pantheon is a true miracle of engineering art and fine artistic taste. This is a regular hemisphere with a diameter of 43.2 meters, the dimensions of its span were surpassed only in the 20th century. Its height is equal to the height of the walls on which it rests. Heavy and massive on the outside, it rests on the supporting walls inside with extraordinary calmness and lightness. Visually facilitating it, five rows of caissons running upward gather in their recesses a soft dusk, and one can imagine that the gilded rosettes that once adorned them gleamed like stars.

For a long time, the Pantheon remained a model for many architects; it won over with its simplicity and integrity of design. Repeatedly famous architects tried to design and build a building that surpasses the Pantheon in size and perfection of embodiment. However, as a true masterpiece, he remained unique. The Pantheon still stands in the center of Rome. This is the only monument of ancient Roman architecture that was not destroyed or rebuilt in the Middle Ages. Many Christian churches were built in imitation of the Pantheon. The most famous of them is the Parisian Pantheon.

CONCLUSION

The architecture of Ancient Rome left a huge legacy to humanity, the significance of which can hardly be overestimated. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural image of a vast part of the world. The art of Roman times has left many remarkable monuments in various fields. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and brought to its logical conclusion. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and the creative skills of the people to which it belonged, the place that this people occupied in the grandiose empire. The Roman state is very complex. He alone had the mission of saying goodbye to the millennial world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of the Christian art of modern times.

The Romans learned how to build arches, simple vaults and domes from stone to cover buildings, they also began to use lime mortar to fasten stones. It was a huge step forward in construction technology. Now it was possible to build more diverse structures in terms of layout and block large interior spaces. For example, the round interior of the Roman pantheon - the temple of all the gods - was 40 meters in diameter. It was covered with a gigantic dome, which was then a model for architects and builders for centuries.

The Romans adopted the Greek columns. They preferred the Corinthian style as the most opulent. In Roman buildings, the columns began to lose their original purpose of being a support for any part of the building. They turned into decoration, because the arches and vaults held without them. Semi-columns and rectangular pilasters were often used.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1.Alferova M.A. History and legends of Ancient Rome M., 2006.

.Blavatsky V.D. Architecture of Ancient Rome M., 1938.

.Golovashin V.A. Culturology M., 2004

.Dozhdev DV Roman private law. Uch. for universities. -M., 1996

.Kirillin V.A. Ancient Rome M., 1986

.Kolpinsky Yu.D. Monuments of world art M., 1970

.Kuzishchin V.I., Gvozdeva I.A. History of Ancient Rome M., 2008

.Mironov V.B. Ancient Rome M., 2007

.Nikolaev D.V. culture ancient world. - St. Petersburg, 2010

.Yarkho V.N. Antique culture - M., 1995.

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.