The appearance of the first sailing ships of the Middle Ages historians refer to the times crusades. Performing their feats of arms, the “defenders of the Holy Sepulcher” moved around the Mediterranean Sea on sailing naves.
The nave is not the name of any particular type of ship: most likely, all the first sailboats were called that, regardless of size and equipment. Unfortunately, the descriptions of the naves of the X-XII centuries. not preserved. We know almost nothing about these ships.
The first accurate descriptions of these ships date back to the 13th century. It was then that Louis IX, the French king, entered into several contracts for the lease of sailing ships built in Marseille, Genoa and Venice. On them he was going to make the Crusades.
It was from these contracts that it became known that the nave of those years was a fairly large ship with a displacement of up to 600 tons. The bow and stern of the ship had the same cheekbones, as well as high multi-tiered superstructures, where crossbowmen were stationed during the battle. The cabins were located on the deck with ledges extending aft. There was no rudder on the naves yet, it was replaced by two short and wide steering oars, for which holes were cut in the stern.
The first naves were single-masted. Subsequently, two masts were installed on these ships, on the tops (tops) of which mars were arranged - protected platforms for shooters and observers. For huge Latin sails, special composite yards were made from two halves. True, it was not very easy to manage the sails. By the way, each nave had three spare masts.
Probably because the masts often broke. In addition, there were three boats on the naves and countless anchors - usually up to twenty. In those days, a device for lifting an anchor - a spire - had not yet been invented, and it was simply impossible to lift a heavy anchor, sometimes weighing more than a ton, by hand.
Therefore, sailors preferred to part with the anchor that had completed its mission, cutting off the anchor rope without regret. The crew of the nave consisted of 100-150 sailors. Such ships could take on board up to 1000 passengers, although, of course, there was no need to talk about comfort.
Starting from the XIII century. shipbuilders in the north and south of Europe began to actively borrow technical solutions from each other in the construction of ships. It all started with the invasion of pirates from Bayonne in the Mediterranean. Pirates sailed on coggs - single-masted ships with a round hull. The design of the coggs could not but interest the southerners. Soon, a number of features of the construction of these ships were adopted by the shipbuilders of Venice, Genoa and Catalonia.
Reconstructed cogg in Rostock (Germany) 2013
By the middle of the XIV century. the naves were greatly enlarged. Their hulls became more and more rounded and capacious, and they already seriously claimed the role of powerful cargo ships. Northern shipbuilders recognized the advantages of the rudder and replaced the traditional steering oar with it. Soon, a third mast, a mizzen, carrying a triangular Latin sail, began to be installed on the naves. This innovation reduced the pressure on the rudder and made the naves more manoeuvrable.
The shrouds, which previously served only to support the masts, were equipped with whitewashed steps. Now they could be used as high-altitude rope ladders, very convenient for setting and cleaning sails.
The naves were colorfully painted and adorned with bright flags and pennants. Carved ornaments, sculptures of mermaids and gods were installed on them. The latest of these ships were designed to look like sumptuous floating palaces. Even the sails began to be made colored: from scarlet to mourning black. The latter, invisible after sunset, were used during military campaigns. Contemporaries called them "wolves".
At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. The largest cargo sailboat was considered to be the karakka. It is believed that this type of ship, in the design of which elements of Mediterranean ships and northern coggs are used, was developed in Portugal.
Karakka. End of the 15th century
The karakka differed from the kogg in its large displacement (up to 2,000 tons) and three-masted sailing armament. Straight sails were attached to the main and foremasts, and triangular latin sails were attached to the mizzen. Later they began to put the fourth bonaventure mast. Additional topsail sails added to the sailing equipment of the mainsail and foresail. A bowsprit appeared, and on it a blind sail. The fort sites lost their defensive battlements and, as it were, merged with the hull. At the same time, the front platform moved far beyond the bow.
With the advent of gunpowder, cannons began to be installed on sailboats. They armed both military and merchant ships. At first, the guns were placed on upper deck, and then special holes began to be cut in the sides of the ship - cannon ports. There were also boarding nets that were pulled over the deck. - They simultaneously prevented the attackers from getting on the deck of the ship and covered the crew from fragments of the spars falling from above.
One pound gun. 13th century
The first to seriously use firearms were the Aragonese, who used it in the battle against the Anjou fleet in 1200. It cannot be said that these were guns in the full sense of the word. Contemporaries called them "thunder pipes".
The chronicles of 1281 already speak of a bombardment, and at the beginning of the 14th century. one-pound guns appear on Genoese ships. In appearance, they resembled a narrow pipe, at the end of which there was a charging chamber. Inside the chamber, a cap with gunpowder was placed in advance. The barrel was mounted on a long carriage clamped into a swivel fork. Such guns did not shoot with cannonballs, but with incendiary arrows left over from ancient times. In turn, the bombards were loaded with stone cannonballs. The smaller ones - small bombards with a long barrel - fired iron and lead cannonballs. The bodies of these guns were welded from iron sheets, and large forged bombards were fastened with powerful iron hoops. Subsequently, bombards, like church bells, were cast in bronze. The monumentality of the casting and the massive carriage made the bombard very similar to a real cannon - a weapon that opened a new era of wars at sea.
Sailing and rowing ship - galeas
Galeas were heavy, clumsy, slow-moving ships that could not withstand bad weather on the high seas. I had to put eight or nine rowers on one oar.
There was no room in the galleys and galleasses to transport goods, ammunition or large numbers of people. For such transportation in those days in Italy they built short and wide, but high-sided sailing ships; they were called naves. To combat sea pirates, the naves were armed. At the top of the mast, an observation post was arranged - "Mars", and at the stern and on the bow - elevations for shooters.
Gradually, the armed naves turned into warships with superstructures on the bow and stern of several floors.
In order to make the naves fast, shipbuilders began to build them narrower and longer, but the high bow and stern superstructures were retained. Such ships are called galleons. But the galleons were also very bulky and not well adapted to sailing in bad weather in the open ocean.
Medieval ship - nave
Since ancient times, the peoples of Europe have traded with India, famous for its fabulous wealth, rare beauty of diamonds, pearls, ivory and various spices. Only a mixed land-sea route to this country was known - through Asia Minor or Egypt. It was a difficult path - the merchants had to cross the territory of several states; they encountered many obstacles along the way. But the thirst for big profits forced the cup-dov to take risks and dangers.
After the conquest by the Arabs and then by the Turks (in the 13th and 14th centuries) of all the territories on the land route to India, Arab and Turkish merchants concentrated all trade with this country in their hands. This prompted the Europeans to look for a sea route to India.
That is why the sea campaigns of Europeans to the west and south of the Atlantic, which began back in the 14th century, began to become more frequent in the 15th century. The ships of the Portuguese were the first to appear on these routes, then the Spaniards. Farther and farther they left the coast of Europe. were first opened Canary Islands, then - Azores. The ships sailed even further south along the western coast of Africa, seizing the lands of this mainland and enslaving the peoples who inhabited them. In I486, the Portuguese rounded Africa from the south, but did not reach India. This was done by the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498.
Six years earlier, in 1492, the Genoese Christopher Columbus, setting off at the head of a Spanish expedition in search of a sea route to India, reached the shores of South America and thus laid the foundation for the conquest of Mexico and the countries of South America by the Spaniards. By the same time, the expedition of the English colonizers had reached North America.
Using the advantages of firearms, the Europeans imposed their dominance in a new open countries Africa and America, robbed and destroyed the local population, turned the natives into slaves.
Thus began the conquest of colonies by Western European states and the enslavement of colonial peoples.
To conquer colonies and rob colonial peoples, to fight among themselves capitalist predators for colonies and their wealth in the turbulent expanses of the oceans, well-armed, seaworthy, quick, agile ships that can withstand storms and bad weather were needed.
Already by the beginning of the 16th century, the growing demand for industrial products led to an increase in the number and improvement technical equipment the first capitalist enterprises - manufactories. Material processing technology advanced, metallurgical production began to improve, and shipbuilding technology also improved.
Gradually decreased and finally, the tall and heavy superstructures at the stern and at the bow disappeared altogether; the warship lengthened, took on a more slender shape, the number of sails on it kept increasing, and their control was built in such a way that in all cases it was possible to the best way take advantage of even the slightest breeze.
Artillerymen did their best to improve ship guns in order to better use them in naval combat. And they tried to build ships in such a way that more cannons could be placed and that their fire would cause the greatest damage to the enemy.
In 1571, 250 ships of the Spanish-Venetian fleet and 300 ships of the Turkish fleet met in battle near Lepanto (Greece). As before, the ships went into battle on oars, "fell" on board and decided the battle in hand-to-hand combat. But, in addition to throwing machines, the ships already had guns. On the ships of the Spanish-Venetian fleet, the number of guns was several times greater than that of the Turks. Most Spaniards and Venetians were armed with firearms - arquebuses. The Turks, on the other hand, relied more on bows and crossbows. The battle ended with the victory of the Spanish-Venetian fleet. And although the guns, which were not yet fast enough and accurate enough, did not play a decisive role in this battle, it nevertheless became clear that this weapon had a great future in military operations at sea.
At the beginning of the 16th century, shipbuilders began to cut holes in the sides of ships - ports - for cannon barrels and lay solid, even decks for cannons.
Started building big ships with two or three lines of ports and with the same number of gun decks. This was of great importance for the development of large, heavily armed sailing ships.
Previously, guns of various calibers were located in the stern and bow superstructures and on the upper deck without any system. Now the guns were lined up in orderly lines along the sides of the ship in two or three tiers.
For the shooters, high superstructures and turrets were left at the stern and at the bow of the ship. The artillery of these ships began to play a large role in naval battles. The number of cannons increased sharply, and the fire of the linearly located artillery
Western Europe
End of the 19th century
Silver; casting, chasing, engraving
In Germany and Holland, the tradition of making miniature naves-ships by jewelers goes back to the Middle Ages. Being symbols of life, votive objects, they also served as vessels for wine at secular meals, salt shakers or bowls for spices, and, finally, table decorations that were placed in front of especially honored guests. Due to the sacred meaning attached to them, the naves were supposed to protect the spices from poison and, therefore, protect their owners from poisoning, as well as from adversity in the sea of \u200b\u200blife or promise salvation during a shipwreck. However, already in the XVI century. cups-ships lose this meaning, becoming just a table decoration. Miniature models of ships with appropriate equipment and full rigging, distinguished by complexity in execution, thoroughness and subtlety of work, were most widespread at that time, which was a kind of response to the great geographical discoveries and the success of navigation. European jewelers of the second half of the 19th century again turned to the “reproduction” of such table decorations, working in the “historicism” style, in a style that was characterized by the recreation, repetition of old forms and the borrowing of ornamental motifs from the art of bygone eras.
A table decoration and at the same time a vessel in the form of a two-masted ship with flying flags and banners, with four raised straight sails. There are engraved images on sails and flags. On each mast there is one basket (the so-called "mars" or "crow's nest") with forward-looking sailors in them. The hull of the ship is decorated with chased images of sea gods and nereids. The rigging (rigging) of the ship, its numerous crew and passengers, as well as cannons, the barrels of which are visible through the holes located along the board from both sides, are reproduced in the smallest detail.
In the middle part of the ship rises a building in the form of a castle with corner towers and a flag. Tower-shaped buildings complete the bow and stern of the ship (in the lower part of which there is a control element - a propeller / rudder). The bow of the ship is decorated with the sculpture "Perseus with the Head of a Medusa", the model for which was the work of the Italian sculptor of the 16th century. Benvenutto Cellini. The ship-nave is mounted on four openwork wheels, each of which is decorated with an overlay in the form of a dolphin.
There is an engraved inscription: "3 March 1891".
From the collection of John Churchill Pearson, 3rd Viscount Cowdray (1910-1995).
No matter how difficult the road by sea was, people believed that it was easier than the land route: after all, in the old days, caravan paths sometimes passed through the possessions of peoples and tribes at enmity with each other, while the sea did not belong to anyone. Moving on land, it was possible to lose not only property, but also life. The same thing could happen at sea, but there was a hostile element, which people at that time were still less afraid of than other people!
Drakkars of the Sea Kings
Brave sailors
Safety and success in navigation largely depended on the design and properties of the ships used by travelers - their strength and stability, seaworthiness, and carrying capacity. It was in the Middle Ages that people managed to create ships that changed the entire course of the history of navigation. Several types of such ships are known, but the first among them are rightfully the drakkars of the legendary northern warriors and travelers - the Vikings. The abundance of wood - oak and pine, as well as the presence of first-class iron ore, which allowed the Scandinavians to have excellent iron tools, contributed to the rapid construction of many ships that became the real basis of their civilization. Ships that could be used both for transport and for military purposes, the Vikings called "karf". Purely combat ships were called " drakkar" (dragon) and " auger" (snake). Many hevdings (noble Normans) had purple sails embroidered with gold, and on gilded masts they had golden lanterns or weathervanes in the form of birds with spread wings. Viking ships were from 22 to 26 m in length (but by the end of the Viking era there were ships 30 and even 50 m long), and their width in the middle part was from 3 to 5 m. An important advantage of the drakkar was the keel - a longitudinal beam made of solid oak trunk, running along the entire bottom from bow to stern. The keel made the ship strong and stable on the wave and allowed the ship to be dragged ashore without damaging the hull. In the middle of the ship there was one mast, which in calm weather could be removed and stored on the deck, 10-12 m high and the same yard. The length of the oars could be 4-6 m, the number of rowers from 14 to 20 rows and even more. The steering oar, which was turned with a short transverse handle - tiller, was usually located on the stern on the right.
Knorr- a merchant ship - was smaller than a drakkar, but wider. Vessels of this type had not one, but two decks - at the bow and at the stern, and all the space between them was occupied by cargo. On longships, cargo and supplies were stored in a hold below deck. Importance was shaped like a sail. It was believed that among the Normans it should be rectangular. If the sailors saw a sail in the sea in the form of a square expanding downwards, then the ship was already considered a stranger and, possibly, an enemy. Most often, such enemies of the Normans were given, or representatives of another northern people. In this case, the Vikings were preparing for any outcome of a meeting on the high seas. Thus, the sail in the old days played the same role as the flags at a later time: identifying one's own or someone else's in an oncoming ship, readiness to friendly greet sailors or hold the line.
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Multi-oared sailless ships of ScandinaviaWitness of antiquity
How do you know what the Viking ships looked like? Why are they now depicted with striped sails? Scientists know about this thanks to the most famous embroidery of the Middle Ages - the "carpet of Queen Matilda", who immortalized the exploits of her husband, King William I the Conqueror.
On a huge strip of canvas 68.3 m long and 50 cm wide (“Bayenne canvas”) that has survived to this day, 58 scenes of the conquest of England by William I the Conqueror are embroidered. Each scene is accompanied by explanatory inscriptions in Latin. The contours of the pattern are made with a stalk seam, and the rest of the parts are made with a satin stitch. Scenes from Aesop's fables, scenes of plowing, hunting and the battle itself are embroidered on a wide border above and below. The embroidery used woolen threads of eight colors: three shades of blue, bright green, dark green, red, yellow and gray. There is some quirkiness in the coloring of the plots. For example, on it you can see a blue horse and a man with green hair.
In addition to people and horses, this embroidery also shows the ships on which William I transported his army from Normandy to England. Striped sails, masts decorated with "golden" weathercocks - wind indicators, most likely made of slotted gilded tin, are clearly visible. Then, in 1066, to transport his troops, and primarily numerous cavalry, William I gathered a whole fleet of several hundred drakkars, on which he crossed the English Channel. Due to the fact that even with a load they sank into the water only one meter, that is, they had a small draft, they could enter the very shallow water, where it remained to tilt them a little in order to quickly land people and horses on the ground. This was the last known use of drakkars in war, after which their use was gradually abandoned in favor of shorter, wider and more powerful vessels. The images on the "carpet" are confirmed by the finds of archaeologists. Ancient Norwegian sailing ships found in the 19th century in Tun and Gokstad, and later in Oseberg, and in 1935 in Ladby, ancient Danish sailing ships gave a complete picture of how they looked in reality. It got to the point that in 1893 in the Norwegian city of Sandefjord, Captain Christian Christiansen built an exact copy of the ship from Gokstad, called the Viking. In just 40 days, he crossed the stormy Atlantic.
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The sailors believed that the figures of deities and fantastic creatures would help them cope with the mighty natural elements. Ancient poets-narrators of the Normans - skalds- in his poems könnings they called the Ship the "horse of the sea" and the "serpent of the waves." The Normans treated the ship as a living being. On the ships of subsequent centuries, the figures on the bow of the ship played the role of identification marks of the owners or noble patrons of the ship, and then completely turned into decorations, in the creation of which prominent artists and sculptors often took part. |
Sheathing on drakkars was overlapped - like modern siding. This shows the assembly of the sheathing using nails or flexible wicker (or rope). The holes after the removal of the oars from them were closed with plugs. |
Scientists are still arguing where the word "Viking" came from. It is also translated as "children of the bays" - from the Norwegian word "vik" - "bay", and from the Norman root, the meaning of which comes down to the Russian word "roam". One way or another, we are talking about people who left their home and hearth for a long time and went on distant voyages under the guidance of their military leader - the king. These dashing people were called Vikings if they wanted to talk about their robbery lifestyle, but Normans - when they emphasized their belonging to the peoples of the North. After all, the word "Norman" in translation from Old Norse means "northern man."
Speed, strength, pressure
After the collapse of the powerful Roman Empire and the death of the Western Roman Empire in 476, maritime trade in the Mediterranean basin was in decline. The art of building magnificent sailing and rowing triremes and penthers was also forgotten. Yes, they were not needed. After all, who now opposed the same Byzantium, which remained an outpost of civilization among the boundless sea of barbarian tribes that flooded Europe? The Slavs on their one-tree boats were dangerous in numbers. But the famous “Greek fire” was enough to fight them - a combustible mixture that continued to burn even on water. The Arabs, who annoyed them a lot at the beginning, could not resist the "Greek fire", even if they already had ships with sails. In the north of Europe, in Scandinavia, there were no land roads at all, and here the ship became the main means of communication. It was in these places that the Normans lived - North Germanic tribes, excellent shipbuilders, sea pirates, warriors and merchants, who played an important role in the history of many states and peoples of Europe.
On the first Viking drakkars, benches for rowers were not yet equipped. During a calm sea, the Vikings rowed, sitting on their chests. The presence of a large sail gave the drakkars an unprecedented speed for those times. The Vikings boldly rushed to board warships or merchant ships that they liked. To break through the skin of enemy ships, the Vikings threw sharp stones at it. The outcome of the battle was decided by hand-to-hand combat. The Vikings often used two types of battle axes: the "bearded" one, so named for the shape of the blade, and the ax with a wide crescent-shaped blade. Long spears with grappling hooks, club clubs and massive war hammers were widely used in the fight. Vikings skillfully threw spears.
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Having landed on a foreign coast, the Vikings dragged their "dragons" to land and set up camp. After their scouts reported on the forces of the future enemy, the Vikings with a sudden swift attack of a heavily armed phalanx pierced his defenses and continued their merciless offensive. If the tactics of the enemy were unclear, and the number of his troops was greater than theirs, the Vikings hid one of their troops in an ambush. The battle formation of the Vikings on land was a phalanx, in the forefront of which stood heavily armed warriors with large, almost human-height shields. The shields were covered with ox skin, and with their lower part they easily stuck into the ground. The Vikings were also aware of the battle formation with a wedge, when in each subsequent row there was one more warrior. The Vikings had almost no cavalry: they were experienced sailors and brave "marine paratroopers". The most desperate Viking warriors were called berserkers - "brave". They fought in the front ranks, not hiding behind shields and often naked to the waist or dressed in wolf skins. At the time of the attack, they lost their sense of self-preservation, no fortifications and numbers of the enemy bothered them. Feeling no pain, they growled like wild beasts, howled and thumped furiously on their shields. Then they could only be stopped by a mortal wound or a spear of the enemy.
The Viking sword was an expensive weapon. Often it was mined in battle. The handle in the form of a cross was held with one hand. In order for the sword not to slip out of the hands, a small ball was attached to its end. The Normans did not use captured weapons until they were magically painted (chased or inlaid with whale teeth or animal bones) and sacred spells were read. Of particular importance was attached to the decoration of the handles of swords: the Vikings believed that the drawing contained the power that was transmitted to the warrior's hand. The second most important weapon of the Vikings - an ax - was attached to a long handle. Possessing such a lever upon impact, the Viking could break not only the enemy’s armor, but also hit his cavalry, cut thick ropes, oars and masts, break the sides of ships, powerful gate boards and wooden fortifications.
The Vikings didn't always win. An exhausting ten-month siege by the Vikings of Paris in 885-886. ended in failure. The city militias, led by Count Ed of Paris, courageously withstood the siege. And only 25 years later, the Normans conquered part of the coast from the French king, on which they founded their duchy - Normandy.
Ushkuy - Volga freemen
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Long before the Baptism of Rus' in 988, the Slavs were brave sailors and more than once approached the walls of Constantinople on their one-tree ships. Well, what happened in Rus' later, when it strained its forces in the fight against the Mongol invasion? It turns out that there was no stagnation in shipbuilding at that time. On the contrary, it was at this time, at the end of the 13th century, that a new type of ship was created in Rus' -. Perhaps its name comes from the polar bear, which in the north of Russia was called ushkuy.
Novgorod shipbuilders built ears from pine wood, rich in resin. The keel was hewn out of one trunk, after which the ends and frames- springs, which were made from thick branches with natural curvature, due to which the frames had great strength. The casing of the hull was assembled from hewn boards and fixed on the frame with wooden nails (the ends of which were wedged with wedges). Between themselves, the boards were sewn together with willow twigs. The inner lining consisted of a flooring on the bottom and two belts: upper and middle, on the upper edge of which rowers' benches rested. The oars at the points of contact with the skin of the ear were covered with leather. Since the ends of the bow and stern on the ship were symmetrical, it could move away from the coast without turning around, which was important for a ship often used in battles. However, they were just as willingly used by merchants. The glory of the Ushkuis is associated with the Novgorod Ushkuis, whose campaigns began at the end of the 13th century. In England, such people were called outlaws - "people outside the law." In Rus', they had their own suitable name - freemen. Torn away from their communities, the brave Ushkuin warriors (as later on the Cossacks) hunted for the robbery of the opponents of Rus': the Norwegians and the Swedes, and even dared to attack the Golden Horde. So, in 1360, 20 years before the Battle of Kulikovo, they marched along the entire Volga and, attacking the Horde cities, captured great wealth. The Khan of the Golden Horde demanded that the Russian princes extradite the ushkuiniki, and they ... agreed: they secretly approached their Kostroma camp, captured the soldiers, and then handed over to the Horde. Nizhny Novgorod and Suzdal, who participated in this evil deed, and Kostroma itself was robbed every time they sailed by. Several times the Ushkuyniki ravaged the Horde city of Bulgar not far from Kazan, and in 1374 they went down the Volga and captured even Sarai, the capital of the Horde! The end of the history of the Ushkuins is connected with the name of the Grand Duke Ivan III, who in 1478 defeated Novgorod and thereby deprived them of their shelter, but they did not find a new place in Rus'.
Ushkui were divided into sea and river. Both of them had one removable mast. Instead of a rudder, just like on Viking ships, a stern oar was used. River ears could take on board up to 30 people. The dimensions of the ears could be 12-14 m long, 2.5 m wide, draft - 0.4-0.6 m, with a side height of up to 1 m.
Nave, dromon - ships of the mediterranean sea
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While the northern seas of Europe were plowed by Viking ships, in the south, in a basin of warm mediterranean sea, completely different ships sailed. After all, despite the death of the Western Roman Empire, its East End survived, and with it the knowledge necessary for the construction of large and complex ships, such as, for example, the galley was. As time went on, people learned how to build merchant ships that were adapted to transport grain, silk and spices from Egypt, Asia Minor to Greek and Italian ports. However, such a profitable trade was at the same time very dangerous: sea robbers rampaged here.
Flying on the waves
Byzantine galleys, known since the 7th century, were warships with one or two rows of oars and one or two masts with oblique triangular sails. There were two steering oars, as before, and a ram protrusion was still preserved in the bow. However, now it was practically not used anymore, since the Byzantine galleys, in addition to traditional throwing machines, also had on board installations for launching their mysterious fire mixture - “Greek fire”. A lot of its recipes have come down to us, so it is difficult to say which of them the Byzantines themselves used. But its long and stable flammability (it could not be extinguished) is beyond doubt. The main feature of both large and small ships of the Mediterranean were triangular, or "Latin", sails: they create a "wing effect" and allow you to move at an angle to the direction of the wind (up to 30 degrees relative to the axis of the vessel). Such a sail converts even the lightest breeze into useful thrust. The size of the ships grew during the Crusades of 1096-1270, when it was necessary to transport heavily armed crusaders, soldiers and pilgrims from Europe to Palestine.
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Heavy cargo on the Genoese ship was placed in the hold. Horses were transported suspended from the ceiling - the animals barely touched the floor with their hooves. This allowed them to be transported in a strong pitching. The ship did not yet have high superstructures. It was steered with a single steering oar. At night, the naves were lit with lanterns, and according to the laws of that time, the number of lanterns had to correspond to the size of the team. |
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Heading for Europe!
The galleys, most of which were occupied by slave rowers chained to their benches, could not transport crusaders and pilgrims to Palestine. Mediterranean shipbuilders built huge, clumsy, but very heavy ships - naves. They had a sheathing, but Latin sails were used, and the hulls had residential superstructures for passengers rising 10-15 m above the water. In the stern there were two short and wide steering oars. The crew of the naves consisted of committee with a silver whistle for giving commands; patron who controlled the sails; pilot plotting the course; two steering and physically strong galliots- rowers.
The voyage from Venice to Jaffa in Palestine lasted ten weeks. Pilgrims who had already visited the Holy Land recommended that those departing take with them their blankets, a pillow, clean towels, a supply of wine and water, crackers, as well as a cage with birds, pork hams, smoked tongues and dried fish. On the ships, all this was given out, but, as the pilgrims said, the linen and towels were stale, the rancid crackers were hard as stone, with larvae, spiders and worms; spoiled wine. But more often they spoke of the need to take incense with them, because on the decks in the heat there was an unbearable stench from horse manure and the feces of pilgrim passengers who suffered from seasickness. The decks were covered with sand, but it was raked out only upon arrival at the port. On the approach to the island of Rhodes, shipbuilders could encounter pirates, from whom they often paid off. During the trip, there were cases of death of passengers from diseases. And yet, despite all the difficulties, voyages to the shores of the Middle East and Africa were made more and more often. During the journey, wealthy passengers allowed themselves luxurious meals and entertainment. They took with them pages, a butler and a valet, and even musicians who entertained them. Along the way, the pilgrims landed on the island of Corfu, where they hunted goats. We also landed on other islands: to stretch our legs and rest.
Coggs - round ships
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Drakkars ceased to appear in the northern seas in the 13th century. New ships appeared - pot-bellied, high-sided single-masted sailboats carrying goods. They were called "round ships" - coggs(from ancient German kugg - round). They could not develop a high speed, but they took on board a large load, which was required by the merchants who were strengthening their position. The design and rigging provided the loaded coggs with good stability.
Floating fortresses trade and defend
A characteristic feature of the North Sea coggs were tower-like platforms - castles (castles) - on the bow and on the stern for archers. Ship castles were built both on military and merchant ships. Exactly in the middle of the ship, a mast assembled from several logs was installed. A special “barrel” was attached to the mast for observers and archers, equipped with a block system to lift ammunition up. Later, the “barrel” was structurally improved on karakkas and was called mars, which could accommodate up to 12 archers or crossbowmen.
Strong frames at a distance of 0.5 m from each other, oak sheathing 50 mm thick and a deck laid on beams - transverse beams of the hull set, the ends of which were often brought out through the sheathing - here important features these courts. The steering wheel, which replaced in the XIII century. a steering oar, and straight stems, strongly beveled to the keel line - the bow and stern ends of the vessel. The stem ended with an inclined mast - a bowsprit, which served to stretch the sail in front. The greatest length of the Hanseatic cogs trade union was approximately 30 m, waterline length - 20 m, width - 7.5 m, draft - 3 m, carrying capacity up to 500 tons.
Light ship gun falconet 1492 Such guns were installed on the ships of the Columbus squadron. They were attached to the turrets (a). Each gun had several charging chambers with carrying handles (b), which were loaded in advance and stored separately from the barrel. The opening of the chamber was closed by a wad: (c), while the core (d) before the shot was rolled into the barrel, into which a wad was also inserted before that, so that it would not roll out of it. Then a charging chamber with gunpowder was attached to the barrel and locked with a wedge (d). Two arcs on the swivel served for vertical aiming of the gun barrel (e). The manufacturing technology of such tools (g) was laborious and complex. The barrel was forged from iron bars, they were welded and hot iron hoops were put on them, tightening the muzzle of the gun.
It is interesting that many large ships of that time, as well as modern ferries and car carriers with horizontal unloading, were equipped with side ports that served to load and unload goods. This allowed them to take cargo on deck and at the same time unload the goods brought through the same port. In the second half of the XV century. two-masted, and later three-masted coggs appeared. Their displacement was 300-500 tons. To protect against pirates and enemy ships, Hansa merchant ships had on board crossbowmen and several bombards - powerful for that time guns that fired stone cannonballs. The length of the military coggs reached 28 m, the width was 8 m, the draft was 2.8 m, and the displacement was 500 tons or more. At the stern and in the bow of the commercial and military coggs, high superstructures were still located. In the Mediterranean, there were sometimes two-masted coggs with slanting sails. At the same time, despite all the improvements, coggs remained coastal ships - suitable for navigation only near the coast. Meanwhile, Europe needed more and more spices, and their flow through the ports of the Mediterranean began to dry up due to the fact that even before the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Turks captured all the coasts of Syria and Palestine, as well as North Africa.
Karakka, caravel - long-distance ship
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One of the peculiarities of shipbuilding in the Mediterranean was flat planking, in which the boards were tightly fitted with edges one to one, and did not overlap, as in the Vikings and on the Venetian naves. With this method of building a vessel, building material was saved, since half as many boards were required for the hull, and most importantly, ships with such plating were lighter and faster. New methods of construction, spreading throughout Europe, contributed to the emergence of new ships. In the first half of the XV century. became the largest European ship used for military and commercial purposes. She had developed superstructures at the bow and at the stern, covered from above with special roofs made of beams, on which fabric was pulled to protect against the sun, and a net to protect against boarding. She did not allow enemies to jump onto the deck from the superstructures of her ship and at the same time did not interfere with shooting at them. The sides of this ship were bent inward, which made boarding difficult. The length of such a carrack could reach 35.8 m, width 5.7 m, draft 4.1 m, carrying capacity 540 tons. The crew of the vessel was 80-90 people. Trade carracks had 10-12 cannons each, and the military could have up to 40 of them! Such ships have already gone on long and long voyages. Later, according to the type of caracques and coggs with three masts and smooth skin in Europe in the 15th century, they began to build caravels - ships of the era of the Great geographical discoveries. It is believed that the first such ship was built by the shipbuilder, the Frenchman Julian, at the shipyards of the Zuider Zee in Holland in 1470. Columbus' ships Pinta and Nina were also caravels, while his flagship Santa Maria ( in his notes, he calls him "nao" - " big ship”) was most likely a karakka, which means that it all belonged to the same “round” ships.
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Multi-deck carracks had three masts with different sails: on the fore: and main masts (first and second) - straight, and on the last third mizzen mast there was an oblique Latin sail, which facilitated maneuvering. On the mars with a supply of weapons, sentinels or arrows were located. |
The Hanseatic League, with its center in Lübeck, uniting the merchant Hanses of about 170 European cities (including Russian Novgorod, Pskov and Smolensk), built many strong cargo-lifting ships. Much attention was paid to the construction of military coggs, the team of which included experienced shooters and gunners. |
Curragh, ganyi, mtepi, or what is stronger - a thread a nail?
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Those centuries that we call the Middle Ages in relation to Europe became the era when peoples living far from each other began to actively study the life and customs of each other. This was facilitated not only by land crossings of trade caravans and military expeditions, but also by bold travels across the seas and even oceans. Long-distance voyages became more and more commonplace. Irish and Eskimos, Arabs and Africans, Chinese and Japanese equipped a variety of warships, fishing and merchant ships: dried apricots, kuttumarams, mtepi, umiaki, dhows, junks, etc. Unusual for modern man there was a technology for assembling many of them. But this did not prevent such ships from successfully overcoming the open spaces of the sea.
Medieval chronicle sources indicate that the inhabitants of Ireland made long voyages (even to America!) on ships with sheathing ... made of leather. The leather pieces of the skin were sewn together, and the body set was fastened with strong straps. A bold experiment conducted in 1977 by the Irish historian and writer Timothy Severin helped make sure that sailing on ships made of leather was possible. He decided to cross Atlantic Ocean on a leather boat - kurrage or carre.
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Pictish boat - . The Romans first heard about the Picts and Scots precisely as skillful sailors making raids from the sea. Celtic boat - was a frame covered with bull skins. |
"Saint Brendan" - a ship made of leather. The sails depict a "cross in a halo" - a symbol of the monks of Ireland. For the construction of this dried apricots, 49 bull skins were processed. |
The wood of the Arabian ship, which was built by Timothy Severin, was selected in the forests of South India, from where the material was also extracted by ancient shipbuilders. Like a thousand years ago, elephants carried logs from the forest. Wood glue was also collected there, which was then used to seal the skin joints. The sails were sewn from cotton fabric. |
The curragh could be up to 15 m long. On the coins of Ahlekta, the curragh is depicted with seven oars on board and one sail. The curra-hahs reconstructed in Ireland have nine oars on board, plus the helms are brought out on the starboard side. Mast with straight sails on a transverse yard. There are several more images of curraga, the weight number fluctuates around seven. Each oar was rowed by two or three rowers. There is evidence of fleets numbering over a hundred boats. Such a fchot could transport more than a thousand people. At least one major naval battle took place in 719.
According to legend, he made such a voyage in the VI century. Irish monk Brendan. To make the hull waterproof, the skins were impregnated with wax. The boat, named "Saint Brendan", had a length of 10.9 m, a width of 2.4 m. It was equipped with two masts with straight sails and a wide-bladed steering oar on the right side. The voyage of the brave traveler and his team continued intermittently for about two years. They were able to cross the Atlantic and reach the coast of North America.
Arabs teach Europeans
Who does not know, for example, the word "lacquer"? However, few people know that this is an Arabic word and only one of the examples of the influence of Arab culture on medieval Europe, which is noticeable even now. Indeed, in addition to the word “lacquer”, the words “algebra”, “admiral”, “arsenal”, “bazaar”, “barrack”, “barge”, “guitar” passed into European languages from Arabic and the languages \u200b\u200bof other countries that were part of the Arab Caliphate , "decanter", "sofa", "camisole", "caravan", "caftan", "pouch", "shop", "marinade", "marmalade", "mattress", "cucumber", "peach", " talisman”, “tulip”, “sofa”, “bird cherry”, “number”, etc. Arabs taught Europeans how to make sugar, sweets and perfumes.
A great contribution to the development of navigation and shipbuilding was made by the Arabs, who turned out to be tireless travelers and skilled shipbuilders. Some navigational instruments were invented by Arab navigators. Many stars have Arabic names. For example, the name of the star Vega in the constellation Aira means "Falling Kite", Deneb in the constellation Cygnus - "Tail", Mencalinan in the constellation Auriga - "Left shoulder of the driver", and Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion - "Armpit of the one who is in the center." Of course, such names helped navigators who knew the main constellations to find one or another star and, by how much it shifted in the sky, determine the location of the ship. Should you, the reader, ever have the opportunity to visit the United United Arab Emirates that on the sultry Arabian Peninsula, next to modern snow-white liners, you will see ancient Arab ships - dhows that have not changed at all for a whole millennium! Today, one of these ships was built famous traveler Timothy Severin, who, after sailing on the St. Brendan, decided to follow in the footsteps of the legendary Sinbad the Sailor from the tales of the Thousand and One Nights. In full accordance with the traditions of Arab shipbuilders in 1980-1981. a 27-meter copy of the vessel was made -. At the same time, all the boards of the hull were sewn with cords twisted by hand from coconut fiber! Arab craftsmen, as it turned out, did not use nails at that time. Modern researchers had to weave 740 km of cord, and then drill many holes in the boards to tie them together. All materials were brought to the Sultanate of Oman, where local boat builders made and launched this ship. In total, the research and the construction of the vessel itself took as much as 30 months; for another five months, future travelers learned the art of sailing, and then successfully completed their planned voyage. The travel route was laid from Oman to China. Together with Severin, 25 people went on an eight-month voyage, who decided to completely reproduce the life on the ship, ship management and navigation methods used in the 9th century. Arab merchant sailors. It turned out that the “sewn” ships were in no way inferior in strength to those assembled on nails, and besides, (by the standards of the medieval era) they were much cheaper.
Junks and fair winds of the Celestial Empire
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Junks are the first ships in the history of navigation to have watertight bulkheads. The rudder passed through the stern appeared on these ships several centuries earlier than on the Hanseatic cog, and in general their design turned out to be so perfect that it did not change for centuries. According to many historians, shipbuilding in China originated even earlier than in Ancient Egypt. Information has come down to us about the voyage of the Chinese to an overseas country, which, according to the description, is very similar to Mexico. But this was several millennia before the new era. In the III century. AD the Chinese invented the first magnetic compass which greatly facilitated their navigation.
Detailed descriptions of medieval Chinese junks were left to us by the famous Venetian merchant Marco Polo after his famous journey to China in 1271-1295. What struck him most was that some of them had four masts, and more spare masts could be added to them to raise additional sails. European shipbuilders recognized such advantages of junks as simplicity and high efficiency of sailing equipment. Due to the low draft, both the mouths of the rivers and the coastal sea areas were accessible to them.
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Multi-masted ocean junk. Such ships were equipped as military ships and made up the fleet of the Emperor of China. So in the thirteenth century 1000 sea junks with 100,000 (!) soldiers on board were sent to the Japanese archipelago. If this fleet had not destroyed a powerful typhoon, then the development of the countries of this region would have taken a different path. |
The large sails of the junks, made of reed mats, were reinforced with horizontal bamboo slats - stiffeners, which allowed them to withstand strong winds without much harm. |
The Japanese junks were somewhat different from those of China, as they had to sail among the islands of the Japanese archipelago, where it would be difficult for large flat-bottomed ships to withstand the pressure of the ocean elements. |
Curious Zheng He
It is known that more than 300 various kinds junks, often plain in appearance, with mat sails, but nevertheless exceptionally seaworthy and well controlled. Preserved to this day, they amaze with their good quality, spaciousness and practicality. All of them - regardless of the purpose - were very similar: they had a flat bottom, vertical sides of the hull, and a slightly pointed nose. As on ancient Greek European ships, eyes were painted on their bow hull. Add-ons in the stern protruded beyond the hull. On some junks, the rudder could be raised and lowered through a special hole in the stern. Such a steering wheel did not have steering loops and was held in place with the help of cables that passed under the bottom of the vessel and were fixed on the bow. A junk hull set with a length of about 45 m could consist of 35-37 frames, which ensured the strength of the hull, and watertight bulkheads, unsinkability. Separate large junks had 200 crew members and could take on board up to 1000 passengers and about 1000 tons of cargo. Large junks made up the squadron of the famous Chinese traveler Zheng He, who between 1405 and 1433, commanding a fleet of more than 300 ships with a crew of 70 thousand people, made seven long-distance expeditions to the West in a row. His ships passed through six seas and two oceans and reached the city of Hormuz, located at the narrowest point of the Persian Gulf. He also visited Aden, Mogadishu, after which he reached east coast Africa south of the island Zanzibar. At that time, ships of neither Chinese nor European merchants had ever entered here, especially such large ones as those of Zheng He. Sometimes it is hard to believe that they could be so large: the largest ones are 140 m long and 58 m wide. The medium ships were a little inferior to them: 108 m long and 48 m wide. Of course, it was quite difficult to manage such giants, but they were obedient to sails, and in calm they could move with the help of oars, and 30 rowers were controlled with each oar!
Zheng He rendered outstanding services to his country, but after the death of the emperor who patronized him, they began to eradicate his memory, and the records of the voyages were destroyed. For some reason, they began to believe that Zheng He's campaigns depleted the treasury, and in return brought only luxury items and rare animals. The fact that thanks to them there was an accumulation of knowledge about distant lands and countries, sea routes were laid, officials were not interested.
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Literature
Shpakovsky V. O. Knights. Locks. Weapons: Scientific-pop. edition for children. - M.: CJSC "ROSMEN-PRESS", 2006.
New Soldier 044 - Picts 297-841
New Soldier #107 - Viking Drakkars
