INCI - Indian ethnic group-pa, having created the state of Tau-an-tin-suyu on the west of South America.

Pre-po-la-ga-yut, which is first-in-the-first-but the word “In-ka” (Sa-pa In-ka - One-st-vein-ny In-ka) oz-na -cha-lo ti-tul ver-hov-no-go in-zh-dya one of the ke-chua tribes, and then it would-lo pe-re-not-se-but and on sa-mo tribe. Is-to-riya and culture-tu-ra of the Incas from the West, according to the data of ar-heo-logia and written sources-toch-no-cams of ko-lo-ni-al-no-go time me-ni (pre-zh-de all-is-pa-no-pe-ru-an-skim hro-ni-kam Gua-ma-na Po-we de Aya-ly, Gar-si-la-so de la Vega and others). Since the in-dei-tsy pe-re-yes-va-li is-to-rical information orally, and the Spanish-pan-tsy began to-pi-sy-vat by -lu-chen-nye through trans-re-vod-chi-kov historical information only from the 1550s. that is, through the co-le-tion after the co-re-va-tion, a lot in the history (including a number of dates) and the culture of the Incas re-con- st-rui-ru-et-sya pre-lo-zhi-tel-but. Ras-cop-ki hundred-faces of the Incas Kus-ko for-work-not-us, since a modern city is in its place; only since 1980, on-cha-elk is-sle-to-va-nie to-is-pan-sky in-se-le-ni in ra-diu-se about 80 km from Kus-ko, as well as provincial Inca centers.

Is-to-ki cul-tu-ry in-kov.

Do-li-on Kus-ko, where pro-is-ho-di-lo for-mi-ro-va-nie of the Incas, on-ho-di-las on the periphery of the ancient cities su-darstvo Ua-ri and Tiau-a-na-ko. Their disappearance-but-ve-nie co-pro-vo-yes-elk de-mo-graphic, host-st-ven-nym, cultural decline and, ve -ro-yat-but, change to-se-le-niya. The drop-dock in the area before-li-us Kus-ko was less obvious. The rise here in the 11th century of the early-non-Inca cul-tu-ra Kil-ke from the beginning of the 14th century was dis-pro-country-nya-is-sya on the neighbor-to-li-na . At this time, in the district of Kus-ko, warehouses-dy-va-et-sya 4-level-not-vaya ie-rar-hiya in-se-le-niy, ha-rak-ter-naya for wounds -them states-of-states, co-z-y-yut-sya public buildings (palaces or temples). On-se-le-nie-re-re-me-shcha-et-sya from the tops of the hills, convenient for the defense, to flat-to-native to-li-ny, where was -vai-va-et earlier empty-then-vav-shie lands; create agricultural ter-ra-sy, irrigation canals. Kha-rak-ter-nye forms of ke-ra-mi-ki Kil-ke (“ari-ball-ly” with a narrow throat and a wide-ro-kim oto-bent-tym ven-chi- com, flat mi-soch-ki with ros-pi-syu on two lo-vi-nas in the form of arches facing each other) the closest ki na-hod-kam to the east-ku from Lake Ti-ti-ka-ka in Bo-li-via and in the northwestern Ar-gen-ti-ne.

Sa-mi Incas considered yourself you-ho-tsa-mi from Tiau-a-na-ko, vla-dev-shi-mi "secret" language, different from personal the Ke-Chua language of Ko-ren-nogo on-se-le-niya Kus-ko. One-on-one data, confirming this tradition, from-sut-st-vu-yut: more-shin-st-in the names of the Incas these-mo-lo-gi- zi-ru-et-xia from the Ke-Chua language, in some-rum in the XIII-XVI centuries, go-in-ri-lo on-se-le-nie of the central and partly southern regions of the mountains -no-go Pe-ru, including do-li-us Kus-ko. A number of especially-ben-no-stay ar-hi-tech-tu-ry of the Incas have par-ral-le-li in ar-hi-tech-tu-re Tiau-a-na-ko. The memory of Ua-ri in the tradition of the Incas was not preserved, but the ancient ki-pu, who served at the Incas for conducting accounting and pe-re-da-chi another infor-ma-tion. Thus, the culture of the Incas, at least indirectly, is connected with more ancient cultures of the Central Andes.

Is-to-riya go-su-dar-st-va in-kov.

At the end of the 14th - the beginning of the 15th centuries, in the pre-li-not Kus-ko, the elk-ran-not-go-su-dar-st-ven-noe about-ra-zo-va-nie with on-se- le-ni-em at least 20-30 thousand people, someone-swarm con-tro-li-ro-va-li Incas. Around 1438, chan-ka invaded here from behind-pa-da, in the language-ku (ke-chua) and cul-tu-re near-kie-te-lyam Kus-ko. According to the voice-but le-gen-de, the old pr-vi-tel Kus-ko Wi-ra-ko-cha In-ka and his legal successor In-ka Ur-ko would you-would-you-ka-pi-tu-li-ro-vat, but the side-son of the great-vi-te-la, who took the name Pa-cha-ku-ti, once -gro-mild the enemy and took over the supreme power.

Raz-gro-miv chan-ka, Pa-cha-ku-ti (about 1438-1463) in-ko-ril pro-to-su-dar-st-ven-noe ob-e-di-ne -nie ai-ma-ra Kolya to the se-ve-ro-for-pa-du from the Ti-ti-ka-ka lake. Enemy-deb-noe Ko-lya association of Lu-pa-ka (to the south-west of Lake Ti-ti-ka-ka) at-join-unit-ni-moose peace- But. In the basin of the lake Ti-ti-ka-ka Pa-cha-ku-ti for-vla-del hundreds of nya-mi thousand lamas and al-pa-ka, provide-pe-chiv ar-miya trans-port-tom, clothes-g-doy and pro-to-vol-st-wee-em. For the ideological confirmation of their dominance, the Incas founded the rich temples on the islands of Lake Ti-ti-ka- ka. Near-bli-zi-tel-but since 1463, together with Pa-cha-ku-ti for-vo-va-niya-mi ru-ko-vo-dil his son - Tupac Yupan-ki (To-pa In-ka Yupan-ki), who became the sole ruler after the death of his father (about 1471-1493). For-you-va-te-whether they-moved-ha-lied to the north-ver, what would ov-la-do Ka-ha-mar-koy - sa-my significant-chi-tel-noy from inter- mountain cat-lo-vin on se-ve-re modern Peru. Then Tu-pak Yupan-ki on-right-vil-sya on the territory of the modern Ek-va-do-ra, where his howl-ska with great labor is us-ta-no -wi-whether control over the me-st-us-mi ple-me-na-mi. In the south of this region, there was an os-no-van city of To-me-bam-ba (near the modern city of Ku-en-ka), which became the second most important in the state of the Incas (in at the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries, from-part-us-tu-drank this role of the race-lo-women-no-mu to the north of the city of Ki-to, near the modern city of Ek-va- Dora).

In the late 1460s and early 1470s, the Incas descended to the coast and for-hwa-ti-li the state of Chi-mor with the capital of Chan-Chan. After the pressure of the resurrection in Chi-mo-re, his co-cro-vi-shcha would you-ve-ze-ny, qua-li-fi-tsirovannye re-mes -len-ni-ki pe-re-se-le-ny from Chan-Cha-na to Kus-ko, the city opus-tel, but the coffins-ni-tsy are right-vi-te-lei os-ta- lis not-tro-well-you-mi (they omit-then-shi-whether the Spanish). At the same time, all-ma ve-ro-yat-but that the Incas are in many ways behind-them-st-vo-va-li su-sche-st-vo-vav-shui in Chi-mo- re-byu-ro-cratic system of management.

Da-lee Tu-pak Yupan-ki on-right-vill-sya to the south, easily join-so-di-niv small go-su-dar-st-va and w-de-st- wa of the central and southern coast of modern Pe-ru. The general Andean temple center of Pa-cha-ka-mak was under the influence of the Incas. With the stubborn co-op-le-ni-em of the Incas, they met only in the not-big-up to-li-not Can-e-te. In the king-st-in-va-nie Tu-pa-ka Yupan-ki would-lo over-the-top-she-but-to-re-the territory of Western Bo-li-via, where-lo-by -le-but the resurrection of the ko-lya tribe and under-chi-not-on the flat-to-native-do-li-on Ko-cha-bam-ba on the eastern slopes of the bo-li Viy-sky Andes. The composition of the state of the Incas also included an extensive ter-ri-to-ria in the south-west of the pas of modern Bo-li-via, se-ve-ro-for-pas-de Ar-gen-ti-ny and se-ve-re Chi-li (approximately up to the modern city of San-th-ya-go), on-se-lyon-naya not-bol-shi-mi groups pa-mi-so-vo-dov, zem-le-del-tsev and ry-ba-kov, not an eye-manager-shi-mi-ser-ez-but-go co-pro-tiv-le-niya.

Na-chi-naya with Pa-cha-ku-ti and the end-tea of ​​the right-le-ni-em Way-ny Ka-pa-ka (1493-1525), the Incas tried to un-move ru-be-zhi of the state and to the east, for co-re-niya cha-cha-sing - obi-ta-te-lei of Eastern Kor-dil-e-ry (on the se-ve-re of modern Pe -RU). We didn’t have to try to intervene in Ama-zo-niyu us-pe-ha. At the peak of mo-gu-shche-st-va, the state of the Incas, according to the opinion of many researchers, had a population of about 9 million people (a spread of estimates from 5 up to 15 million people) and pro-cha-well-moose from se-ve-ra to the south for 4000 km.

Wai-na Ka-pak died on se-ve-re Tau-an-tin-suyu from epi-de-mia, dis-pro-country-niv-she-sya in South America after per- out con-so-tov with ev-ro-pei-tsa-mi. You-branded to them-after-nick also died. But-ym was appointed os-ta-vav-shiy-sya in Kus-ko 19-year-old Was-kar. Hurrying to signify the main posts in the state of his friends, he entered into a conflict with the near-wives of his father, on-ho- div-shi-mi-sya on the ter-ri-to-rii of modern Ek-va-do-ra. Those you-dvi-well-whether in ka-che-st-ve but-in-go in-ki Atahual-pu. Howl-ska Huasca-ra would-whether thunder-le-we half-ko-vod-tsem Atahual-py Chal-ku Chi-my. Staying in Ka-ha-mar-ke, Atau-al-pa or-ga-ni-zo-val kill-st-in Huasca-ra and his near-wives, wives and de- tei. This is the use of F. Pi-sar-ro, you-sa-div-shi-sya with your own detachment in Tum-be-se (near the border of the modern Pe-ru and Ek-va-do-ra). For-hva-tiv Atau-al-pu during the time of not-expect-give-no-go on-pa-de-niya, he accused him of usurping power and on- started on the move to Kus-ko, supposedly with the goal of bringing it to the throne for-con-no-go on-the-next-no-ka Ua-ska-ra - his sons-on Man-ko Ka -pa-ka II. All this time, the collision-but-ve-niya of the hostile Inca groups-pi-ro-wok continued. Part of the pro-vincial nobility of the Incas under-der-la-is-pan-tsev, having glorified them under-cre-p-le-nie. After his form-mal-no-go-tsa-re-niya in 1534, In-ka Man-ko Ka-pak II soon led the revolt against is -pan-tsev, and in 1536 he left-stepped into the mountains, creating there the New Inca kingdom in Wil-ka-bam-be. In the course of the war, between Ua-ska-rom and Atau-al-poi and under the blow of the Spanish, the administrative system-te-ma Tau-an-tin-suyu ras-pa- and the city-ro-yes omitted-te-whether, except for the key-che-ni-em Kus-ko and parts of the cities in the basin-this-not of the Ti-ti-ka-ka lake, where justified-but-va-lis for-voe-va-te-whether.

The new way of the Indians, you grew up in the era of the non-urya-dits, it became an idea-li-zi-ro-vat the former state of the Incas, that more than that, on-de-well-dy of the pro-vincial nobility, it’s not-for-vi-si-bridge that they didn’t op-raw-yes. Modern science is pre-la-ga-et, that, according to-becoming-le-ni-pits of pe-ru-an-sky Indians, in 1565 came-ho-di-elk on -cha-lo of a large time cycle, someone should-wife was brought-to-me-st-nym-bo-s-st-you-first-to-before-cam (wah-ka) be-du over the god of white aliens. These representations were formed into the ideology of the movement “ta-ki-on-koy” (“beach-so-who-not-arc”: after -va-teli with-no-ma-whether participating in ex-ta-ti-che-sky dances), rise-nick-she-name-but before 1565. But already in 1572, it was thunder-le-but, like the New Inca kingdom, the last ruler of someone-ro-go, Tu-pak Ama-ru, was kaz-nyon, after which, open and mass co-op-against-le-tion of the Indians of Pe-ru on-dol- go pre-kra-ti-moose. Having accepted christ-en-st-in-that-ki-one hundred-personal and pro-provincial nobility kept part of their privileges and teaching-st-in-wa-li in the for-mi-ro-va-nii of culture-tu-ry, including both Indian and European elements.

In 1780, Ho-se Gab-ri-el Kon-dor-kan-ki, who took the name of Tu-pak Ama-ru II, led the largest revolt in vi-tse-ko-ro-left-st-ve Per-ru, after-the-ra-zhe-niya-ko-ro-go Ink-kul-tu-ra windows-cha-tel-but ut -ra-ti-la the possibility of development, and before-a-hundred-vi-te-whether the Inca nobility would you-slan-us to Spain or kill you.

General-st-ven-noe device-swarm-st-in and management in the state-su-dar-st-ve in-kov.

By the beginning of the 15th century, the Incas, like other ethnic groups in the An-ds, had su-sche-st-vo-va-la du-al-naya or-ga-ni-za-tion, with someone -the swarm of the head of the senior frat-rii (anan) was considered the top-hov-nym, and the head of the junior frat-rii (urin) was in a large re is connected with cul-you-mi functions (frat-rii is also pro-ti-in-post-la-li-li-to each other as a husband-chi-we-women-schi -to us and how for-voe-va-te-whether abo-ri-ge-us).

The main sacred place of the Incas, first-at-first-but on-ho-di-elk in the place of Ua-na-kau-ri, where, according to pre-da- niyu, on the way to do-li-nu Kus-ko ascended to the sun, returned-null-sya and oka-me-nel the elder brother of the mythical first Inca di-na-stii Man-ko Ka-pa-ka. He brought the news of the coming us-foot-for-hwa-te Kus-ko and sank-tsio-ni-ro-val from the name of In-ti (Sun) right Man -ko on for-you-va-nie. Ras-po-la-ga-yas south of Kus-ko, holy-ti-li-sche Ua-na-kau-ri na-ho-di-moose on the lands of the frat-rii urin and as-so- tsii-ro-va-moose with priests-ca-mi. Sanction on the vo-tsa-re-nie of ka-zh-to-go but-to-go In-ki da-val In-type Apun (co-pr-vi-tel, high priest). Pro-is-ho-di-lo is b-go-da-ya vision, during the time of someone-ro-go with Ying-ti-p Apu-nom raz-go-va-ri-va-lo god-st-vo (Sun-tse, or Vi-ra-ko-cha, someone-ry, perhaps, as-so-ci-ro-val-sya with the Milky Pu- Tem or Orion). In an effort to gain power, bypassing the traditional pro-tse-du-ru, from-stra-thread is already on-significant-but-on-the-next-no-ka and from-be- reap og-ra-ni-chi-vayu-shchi his half-but-mo-chia sanctions of the top priest, Pa-cha-ku-ti announced that he himself had a vi-de-nie, moreover, not in Ua-na-kau-ri, but in Kus-ko, where In-ti was with him. Previously, Ying-type Apun, as the head of the phrate-rii urin, vi-di-mo, after-the-val-function of the top priest, Pa-cha-ku- the same began to signify the higher spiritual face itself. New pro-tse-fool in-tro-no-for-tion would not be op-re-de-le-na in de-ta-lyah; in the future, the sanction of the top-hov-no-th priest was still required for her, when changing right-vi-te-lei to the next-nick-nick str-mil -sya op-ret-sya on the zhre-che-st-in the largest temple centers. Window-cha-tel-noe confirmation of their rights, the new Ying-ka did better, having won in victory on the battlefield.

Ob-la-daya ab-with-fierce power, Sa-pa In-ka, rather than everything, with-no-small solution, teach-you-vaya me-tion of your -their kind-of-st-ven-ni-kov, considering-tav-shih-sya, like himself, we-we-mi-that-ka-mi Man-ko Ka-pa-ka. Me-zh-du ni-mi races-pre-de-la-lis-the highest priests-che-sky (in Kus-ko), ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tiv-nye (in the hundred-face and from-part-ty in pro-vin-qi-yah) and military must-no-sti.

The state of the Incas de-li-elk for 4 quarters (suyu) - two in two in two lo-wi-nahs (ha-nan - top and hu-rin - bottom). Each suyu consisted of several ai-liu - communities, members of some of them considered themselves in that-ka-mi op- re-de-lyon-nyh mythical first-in-ancestors. Each-do-mu ai-leu co-from-vet-st-in-shaft your se-ke - azi-mut, on-right-le-tion, coming from Ko-ri-kan- chi (“zo-lo-that house” or “estate-ba”), the main temple of Kus-ko. Along the se-ke race-po-la-ha-lis-ti-li-shcha dan-no-go ailyu. In practice, se-ke does not present-la-whether geo-metric straight lines, insofar as they would be connected with op-re-de-lyon -we-mi-irrigating ka-na-la-mi, some-ry-mi vla-de-li ah-lew, but general on-right-le-nie se-ke so-storage -whether that the eye-for-elk is su-shche-st-ven-nym in the process of ras-shi-re-nation of the state. Chin-cha-suyu and Ko-lya-suyu oh-va-you-va-li most of the ter-ri-to-rii of the Inca state (to the se-ve-ro-for-pa-du and south-east to-ku from Kus-ko); Kun-ti-suyu (south-west) and An-ti-suyu (se-ve-ro-east-current) would be less.

The main way of co-communion would be to-ro-gi, su-sche-st-vo-vav-shie in An-dah from-dav-on, but now volume-e -di-nyon-nye in a single network. Along them, there were races-la-ha-lis there-bo (tam-pu) - an analog of standing courtyards. Special speed-ro-ho-dy (hours) non-sli (according to es-ta-fe-te from one-but-th there-bo to another) ki-pu, so-der-jav -shie for-ka-for-niya and from-che-you. Ko-di-ditch-koy, de-cipher-ditch-koy and store-no-no-eat this in-for-ma-tion for-no-ma-lis special servants - ki-pu -ka-may-ok. After the Spanish conquest, from their words, there was la for-pi-sa-na and part of the sve-de-ny, which went after that into written sources about the Incas.

The Inca army would-la or-ga-ni-zo-va-na on the os-no-ve de-sya-tich-no-go principle-qi-pa, from-whether-cha-las ma- nev-ren-no-stu and dis-qi-p-li-noy. Warriors-new on-bi-ra-li from among the kre-st-yan-ob-shchin-ni-kov. We equip a long-range battle, serve the ancestral and bo-la, near-not-go - ma-ka-na (pa-li-tsa with a stone, hour- then stars-to-ob-differently on-top-shi-em from stone or, re-same, bronze), as well as wallpaper-to-ost-ry de-re-vyan-ny a sword and a long spear, sometimes with a bronze-on-no-no-no-one. Te-lo for-shchi-shcha-whether a helmet and a not-big shield from de-re-va or tro-st-no-ka with a leather-covered roof, dense clap -cha-to-bu-mazh-naya ru-ba-ha; bow and spear-e-me-tal-ka didn’t come with me, at least from-west-we with-sed-him on-ro-dam. A network of races-of-lo-women along the roads of depots of amu-ni-tion and food-st-viya in-la-la would-st-ro con-tsen-tri-ro- to wage a war for waging border wars and crushing resurrections.

Is-pan-tsy for-sta-whether in the state of the Incas 2 ka-te-go-rii know-ty. The first ka-te-go-ryu was represented by the Incas, who became in the way of the pro-vin-qi-yah of the ruling group, sing new th type-pa, not connected with pro-is-ho-w-de-no-eat with me-st-nym on-se-le-no-eat. To the second-swarm from-but-si-lis ku-ra-ka (in some-some-ry districts they are called-zy-wa-li-mal-ku) - the head-you for-how-van- nyh communities and ob-e-di-no-ny. Having different mythical first-ancestors (wa-ka), the Inca and pro-provincial could not know whether they could mix, although they had waddle with the Incas. before-a-hundred-vi-te-lyam of the me-st-noy know-ty is still good-la-moose. The connection of ku-ra-ka with the center under-der-zh-va-lo ras-pre-de-le-nie from the center of gold, expensive fabrics, import -nyh ra-ko-wines, etc. on the principle of qi-pu da-ro-ob-me-na, s-s-s-st-in-vav-she-go under-der-zha-niya personal- nyh connections and lo-yal-no-sti.

Management-le-ni under-chi-nyon-ny-mi ter-ri-to-riya-mi would-lo or-ga-ni-zo-va-no on os-no-ve de-sya-tich-noy sis-te-we with elements-men-ta-mi four-ve-rich-noy -kov group-pa-mi 40, 200 and 400 people). Head-va-mi sub-raz-de-le-ni lower-she stu-pe-ni chung-ga (10 do-mo-households) would-whether the community-ni-ki (whose can-di -datu-ry, in-vi-di-mo-mu, ut-ver-waited ad-mi-ni-st-ra-to-ra-mi more you-so-rank-ha ). 100 (pa-cha-ka), 1 thousand (wa-ran-ga) and 10 thousand (hoo-nu) to-mo-households under-chi-ny-were me-st-nym ku-ra-ka . From the editor, the head of the hu-nu-signified a man-lo-age, who, according to the tradition, did not have the right to such a post. The highest (after suyu) administrative unit would be la pro-vin-tion - wa-ma-ni (term-min first-in-first-but from-but-strength to mountain tops-shi-us, in-chi-ta-thing of some-ryh ob-e-di-nya-lo co-from-vet-st-vuyu-shche-se-le-nie). In za-vi-si-mo-sti from the former et-noya-zy-ko-vy borders of wa-ma-ni consisted of 2, 3 or 4 hours, ka-zh- giving an example of 10 thousand do-mo-households. This or-ga-ni-za-tion would-la-la-bo-le-after-before-va-tel-but enter-de-na in the early-it is weak-bo-for-se-lyon-ny paradise -onakh of the central part of the mountains of Peru, where the Incas built new administrative centers (Ha-tun-Hau-ha, Ua-nu-ko-Pam-pa, Pum- pu). In other areas, pre-Inca forms of government were preserved to a greater or lesser extent.

Even in the pre-Inca period, separate eth-no-po-lytic ob-ra-zo-va-nia described-sy-wa-lied into symbolic class-si-fi- ka-tion as “men-chi-na” and “women-chi-na”. With the ob-ra-zo-va-ni-em Tau-an-tin-suyu in the "male" in the zi-tion of the eye-hall-sya is-key-chi-tel-but Kus-ko. In-ka had symbolic rights to all the women of them-pe-rii, a sign of something was his marriage to you-with-co-kind -noy pre-hundred-vi-tel-ni-tsei ka-zh-do-go under-chi-nyon-no-go on-ro-yes. In Kus-ko, they are in-lu-cha-li the status of barrel-wives. In addition to that, according to all the go-su-dar-st-vu from-bi-ra-lis de-voch-ki (ak-lya - “of-branched”), someone- ryh pe-re-se-la-li into special ak-lya-wa-si (wa-si - house). Pain-shin-st-in for-no-ma-elk from-go-to-le-ni-eat fabric for the needs of temples and the state, not-something In-ka from-yes- a shaft as a wife to those whom he wanted to na-gra-dit.

9/10 on-se-le-niya Tau-an-tin-suyu would be a member-on-mi of the community (ah-lew), on-ho-div-shih-sya on sa-mo-ob- pe-che-no. They should-whether to ob-ra-ba-you-vat for the state 1/3 of all lands, but in practice this do-la-oka-zy-va-las went-once-to-less - necks; for red-ki-mi is-key-che-niya-mi, yes, don’t cry. The communities should have taken part in the collective work-bo-tah - mi-ta. A number of communities pe-re-se-la-li to new ter-ri-to-rii (lo-yal groups - to state borders, for-me-shan-nye in vos-sta-ni-yah - to the interior regions). Their members (mit-mak - from mi-ta) under-ver-ha-were more in-ten-siv-noy exploitation-ta-tion, on-right-lya-lied on the -bot-ku of virgin or abandoned lands. About 1% of the inhabitants of the Inca state have ut-ra-ti-li connections with ai-liu, these people (yana-ko-na) would have been servants, from red-ka could-whether for-no-mother administrative duties. Not-big-shoy ka-te-go-ri-it on-se-le-niya would-whether ka-may-ok - qua-li-fi-tsirovannye re-mes-len-ni-ki and serve -shchy ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tion.

To-la urban on-se-le-niya, in vi-di-mo-mu, not over-you-sha-la 5%. The number of inhabitants of Kus-ko is estimated at 125 thousand people, the largest pro-vin-tsia-l-no-go tse-nt-ra Ua- Well-ko-Pam-pa - 30 thousand people. Live-those-whether built by the Incas of the city-ro-dov tse-li-com for-ve-se-whether from the state in the supply of pro-to-free-st-we-em, some-swarm center-tra-li-zo-van-but dos-tav-la-moose ka-ra-va-na-mi lam and store-ni-elk, on-a-row-du with pro-duk- qi-her re-mes-len-ni-kov, in warehouses (kol-ka). Such a sis-te-mu of the Incas unas-le-do-wa-li from more-earlier states.

Due to the work-boat-ni-kov and lands, re-given by the state to the local nobility in the na-gra-du for the us-lu-gi, warehouse-dy-val-sya "Kor-po-ra-tiv-ny" sector eco-no-mi-ki. In many cases, In-ka only confirmed the great-wa ku-ra-ka and his clan-st-ven-nik-kov, someone-ry-mi those ob-la- yes, even earlier. The ras-shi-re-nie of this sek-th-ra went on due to the growth of that vla-de-niy hundred-personal nobility. After the death of the right-wi-te-la, part of his imu-sche-st-va on-the-follow-before-wa-whether after-ki-by-boch-ny wives, some-rye- ra-zo-you-wa-whether new pa-na-ka (according to the meaning close to ai-liu - ob-schi-na). The main duty of its members would be for-la-bo-ta about the m-mia of the deceased In-ki, but fak-ti-che-ski is - you-de-liv-neck-sya from the state sec-to-ra cor-po-ra-tiv-noe household, provide-pe-chi-vav-neck bo-ko-out on-trace-no-kov In-ki; pain-shin-st-in pa-na-ka races-po-la-ha-moose near a hundred-faces.

In addition to that, in the Central Andes even before the Incas, ve-ro-yat-no, su-sche-st-vo-va-whether large temple-houses . The most influence-tel-we-mi temple-mo-you-mi center-tra-mi under the Incas would be Ko-ri-kan-cha in Kus-ko and Pa-cha-ka-mak on po -be-re-zhe.

The plan-ta-tion-mi kus-tar-ni-ka ko-ki, whose leaves, calling out at the same time, had a special meaning. -va-nii narco-tic effect, used-pol-zo-va-li in ri-tua-lah. Suitable for you-ra-schi-va-niya ko-ki ze-stranded would-lo ma-lo, and right-va on them a hundred-yan-but os-pa-ri-va-lis separate ah-lew and ethnic groups-pa-mi.

Kul-tu-ra in-kov.

In the Central An-ds, there were no pan-te-o-na-deities with their own-st-veins-us-mi ka-zh-do-mu sphere-ra-mi (sun, fire, ve- ter, etc.). Wa-ka (bo-s-st-va-per-in-pre-ki) and wa-ma-neither were objects of local cults, but in general Andean ha-rak-ter had the idea of ​​​​the supreme not-devil-on-cha-le, connected with not-how-ki-not quite -not dis-member-we-we-images (rising sun, afternoon sun, etc.). In the mountainous regions, the pro-intermediate-lo-s-the-same in ie-rar-xia between the upper level and the me-st-ny-mi wa-ka for -no-small god-gro-mov-nickname. Mother-earth-la (Pa-cha-ma-ma) played an important role in the re-league of the earth-le-del-tsev, but not in the state cult.

The supreme ruler (Sa-pa In-ka) as-so-ci-ro-val-sya with the Sun (and his main wife-na is with the Moon), but convincing-di-tel-nyh facts, witness-de-tel-st-vuu-ing about their life-time about the same-st-in-le-nii, no. In-ka you-stepped in the middle-no-one between the high-shi-mi si-la-mi and people. On the ri-sun-ke of the 17th century, In-ka and the Sun drink at the same time from paired goblets, in a similar way as noble people do pi -whether together with Ying-koy. In August, at the time of ri-tua-la, ska-py-va-niya first-of-a-la Ying-ka, and after it before-a-hundred-vi-te-whether you know about -ra-ba-you-wa-whether learning-drain to the east from the city of Kus-ko, after something to the land-dealing ra-bo-there could you come kr-st-I-not. Ho-zyay-koy this-la-la was considered se-st-ra (or mother) and she is also-on-pra-ro-di-te-la Man-ko Ka-pa-ka - Ma -ma Wako. Man-ko Ka-pak, his brothers and syo-st-ry, and then died right-wi-te-li Kus-ko, whose mummies were stored in Ko-ri-kan-che and de-mon-st-ri-ro-wa-was during the holidays, had functions similar to those, someone rye p-pi-sy-va-lis wa-ka of other ethnic groups of the Central Andes. Ho-cha the cult of the royal ancestors was the basis of the new-howl of the religion of the Incas; -gich cults of local noble families. The Incas enter-di-whether in pro-vin-qi-yah earlier not-from-the-west there wa-ka, creating a network of new cults. When re-re-se-le-ni mik-mak to new lands, renewal of the former wa-ka pro-ho-di-lo under the control of the central authorities .

An important role in the spiritual life of the Incas is played by temples, providing their influence through pro-ro-che-st-va and their tol-ko-va-niya, in some-ryh-well-yes-great-vi-te-li and private persons hundred of the Li-ma and the Ri-mak river, in the to-do-not-to-swarm it is on-ho-dit-sya, oz-on-cha-et “go-in-ry-shchy” , that is, "ora-kul"). Inclusion of new ter-ri-to-riy in the sphere of influence of the temple pro-is-ho-di-lo pu-them os-no-va-nia to black prices -trov pro-ri-tsa-ny.

The ideological unity of the state, the relationship of Kus-ko with the provinces-mi found from-ra-same-nie in ri-tua-le Ka-pak Hu-cha (“ve-whether-some-sacrifice-in-at-but-she-nie”). Once every 4 years, yes, and also on the occasion of trouble-st-viy in each house from four-you-rekh suyu or in a specific place, well- well-give-shey-sya in the support of higher forces, ot-ski-wa-whether de-tey and under-ro-st-kov, who did not have physical non-dos-tat- cov. At the head of the tor-ve-st-ven-noy pro-session of them on-right-la-whether in Kus-ko and pry-no-si-whether in sacrifice in Ko-ri-kan-che or Wa-na-kau-ri li-bo on ro-di-ne. Pri-not-sen-nye in zher-t-vu as-so-ci-ro-wa-lied with wa-ka, and their clan-st-ven-ni-ki used various applications vi-le-gia-mi. With Ka-pak Hu-cha, in-vi-di-mo-mu, connected-for-us in-gre-be-niya de-tey and under-ro-st-kov, ob-na-ru-women- the states of the Incas, located along the periphery, on the island near the coast of modern Ek-va-do-ra and on many mountain peaks-shi-nah Ar-gen-ti -ny and Chi-li. In-ven-tar in-dob-nyh for-ho-ro-not-ny was standard and included golden fi-gur-ki lamas and people.

To the number of pre-stylish ones from de-li, fabrics were from-but. After the execution of Atau-al-py, warehouses with fabrics would be co-burned by us from-stu-pav-shi-mi war-on-chal-no-ka-mi of the Incas. The samples that have come down to us are not-rarely in-roof-you are different-but-color-us-mi-to-ka-pu - quad-ra-ta-mi one-on-ko- in the th time-measure with different-about-times-us-mi geo-metric fi-gu-ra-mi inside. Possibly, then-ka-pu imagined-la-whether with a familiar sys-te-mu; to try to prove that this is writing-men-ness, we didn’t succeed.

All the fi-gu-ry deities in the Inca temples would have destroyed the same-we-is-pan-tsa-mi. Their brief descriptions, as well as single savings of images on golden objects v-yut on the fact that the Inca icon-no-gra-fia is-py-ta-la the influence of a cultural tour in a be-re-zhya. Kha-rak-ter-noy for the Incas ka-te-go-ri-ey from de-liy would be gold and silver fi-gur-ki (height up to 10-20 cm) man-chin, women-schin and lamas or al-pa-ka; many pro-is-ho-dyat from gre-be-ny ​​de-tey and sub-ro-st-kov associated with ri-tua-lom Ka-pak Hu-cha. The same ha-rak-ter-ny: ce-ra-mic, stone-nye and wooden co-su-dy for ri-tu-al-nyh potions (pah-cha) in for-me ku-ri-tel-noy tube-ki 15-20 cm long with capacity in the form of go-lo-you live-here-no-go, in someone-rui on -whether it’s liquid, and with a hole at the pro-ti-in-at-the-false-end, from someone-ro-go it you-li-va- lass (meet-cha-yut-sya smell-cha whole-whether in the form of fi-gu-ry zhi-that-no-go, fish, etc.); mi-nia-tur-nye (height 1-3 cm) stone fi-gur-ki lam and al-pa-ka (vi-di-mo, belonging to se-mei-no -ro-do-vy cults); stone mortars with a diameter of about 15 cm in the form of a low qi-lin-d-ra with a relief de-co-rum (possibly, for races-ti-ra-niya nar-ko-ti-kov).

After the Spanish conquest, de-raven ri-tu-al-cubes (ke-ro), on some earlier there was only a geometric pro- carved or-na-ment, became-is it difficult to cover-we-we-whether-chrome-we-mi scene-on-mi. The proportions of fi-gur and some-something de-ta-li of these images of the brothers for-im-st-in-va-na from the European tradition, but other de-ta-li and general com-po-zi-tion co-ot-vet-st-vu-yut of ancient-ne-pe-ru-an-skim ka-no-us, pro-sled- zhi-vae-mym up to ros-pi-this on the co-su-dakh of the I-VII centuries of the culture of mo-chi-ka. Iso-brother-wives on ke-ro military clash-but-ve-niya from-ra-zha-yut fight-bu obi-ta-te-lei Kus-ko with in-dei-tsa-mi Ama -zo-nii ("chun-cho").

A distinctive feature of the ar-hi-tech-tu-ry of the Incas is the use of large (sometimes gigantic - weighing more than 100 tons) smooth-to-ra-bo-tan-ny under-rectangular-stone-stone blocks and narrowing-squeezing-kver-khu door and window pros -yoma. The building is in the second form of a rural dwelling - a rectangular house under a double-pitched roof (kal-yan-ka) and ka -re from four-you-ryoh kal-yan-ka around the square-rat-no-go courtyard (kan-cha). On a be-re-zhe (re-same in the mountains), the Incas also built from cheese-tso-vo-go kir-pi-cha. Rez-ko-pe-re-se-chon-ny rel-ef me-st-no-sti near the eastern slopes of the Andes along the slope of the terraces and stairs. She-dev-rom ar-hi-tech-tu-ry yav-la-et-sya not-to-stro-en-naya for-go-rod-naya re-zi-den-tion Ma-chu-Pik- chu . Not-someone-rye-on-ho-dying-sya objects there, in a vi-di-mo-mu, were-for-a-know-for-a-blu-de-niya behind the sun with the goal of op-re-de-le-niya days of sun-standing or equal-day-st-via, important in ri-tu-al-nom ka-len -yes-re.

As-tro-no-micic representations of the Incas strongly deviated from the ha-rak-ter-nyh for Eura-zia and Me-so-amer-ri-ki: from-day-st-vie zo-dia-ka, designation of different bright stars with the same name, important role of the Milky Way in the member-not-of-the-year-yes on the se-zones, imagining about the "black co-stars" - dark spots on the Milky Way and others. -cha-lo from-counting-that lunar months to the winter-not-sun-standing and introducing until-full-no-tel-ny days for co-gla-so -va-niya moon-no-go and sun-nech-no-go ka-len-da-ray.

Tra-di-qi-on-naya oral culture-tu-ra. Poetry, music and dance had an important state and social significance, were they closely connected with the cult. In the court-yard churches-re-mo-ni-yah in Kus-ko, with-ni-ma-li, the participation of en-samb-li flute-ti-stov, not-rarely very large ( up to 100 mu-zy-kan-tov), ​​games-raw-shie, including in tech-no-ke, near go-ke-tu. Go-lo-sa deities and spirits re-re-yes-va-lis with the help of the original-gi-nal-nyh according to those bro-ym ha-rak-te-ri-sti- kam aero-fo-nov in the form of snakes, jagua-ditch and other animals-that-the-the-the-m. Professional poets and mu-zy-kan-you compose-la-whether your own ro-da kas-tu (ara-vi-ku-na). In Kus-ko su-sche-st-vo-va-li school-ly (yachau-a-si), where young shi from noble families for-learn-va-li ge-nea-lo- gyu of the Incas, historical tradition, studied the art of poetry and music, and others. whether among the priestesses ak-l-ya-ku-na (“not-the-weight-you of the Sun”), they also learned to sing and play at musical in-st-ru- men-tah at a special school in Kus-ko. The main genres of professional poetry and music: hi-li - hymns with various te-ma-ti-koy (religious-ob-rya-do-vye, uro-chen- nye to ka-len-dar-ny holidays, etc.), ta-ki - historical songs. Part of the races-pro-country-none-nyh environments on-se-le-niya pe-sen-nyh and dance-val-ditch genres were kept and still are not in traditional cul-tu-re ke-chua and ayma-ra: this is a solo love song ara-vi flutes-tah), an elegiac song uan-ka (sound-cha-la during the to-mya-st-ven-ny mourning ceremonies), count lek-tive-songs-ni-dances ka-chua, wai-no (kru-go-vye), ka-ruyu (is-pol-nya-is-two-ya-ya-da-mi tan- tsuyu-shih).

According to the voice-but is-pa-no-pe-ru-an-ski-m chrono-ni-stam of the 16th century, the m-zy-ka of the Incas ob-e-di-ni-la tra-di-tions nyh tribes, on-se-lyav-shih Latin America; in the cha-st-no-sti, ra-ko-vi-na-tru-ba would-la for-im-st-in-va-na at na-se-le-niya in-be-re-zhya Ka -rib-sko-go-rya. "Class-si-che-sky" in-st-ru-ment of the Incas - many-barreled flute-ta (ke-chu-an-skoe - an-ta-ra, ai-mar-skoe - si -ku), from-west-naya still in the Na-ska culture: flute-you do-ink-so-go about-is-ho-zh-de-niya one-but-row-nye (number -lo pipe-side 3-14), the Incas appeared 2-row in-st-ru-men-you with 4-5 pipes-ka-mi in each house in a row ( from-go-tav-li-va-lis from tro-st-ni-ka, kos-ti, clay-na, dre-ve-si-na, metal-tal-la, nai-bo-lee ar-ha -ich-nye - from a stone). Gar-si-la-so de la Ve-ga from-me-chal the complexity of the sound of the Inca music for multi-barreled flutes, for-key-chav -shih in the upper part of her part after-before-va-niya in-lu-that-new. In the at-court music, they used bundles of 4-5 pairs of longitudinal flutes, together with-becoming-long (up to 3 ok-tav) sound-to-series of complex in-ter-val-no-go co-hundred-va. On-row-du with flute-ta-mi (pro-long flute-you ras-pro-countries-not-us are still in Peru under the name ke-na, pin-co-lyo) for mu -zy-ki of the Incas ha-rak-ter-ny pipes (from tro-st-ni-ka, you-to-you and other ma-te-ria-lov), different-but-about-different idio-fon-ny (ko-lo-kol-chi-ki, gon-gi, idio-fon from che-re-pa gua-na-ko, various gree-mush-ki, including from ko- tried ta-pi-ra) and mem-bra-no-fon-ny (after-pre-lo-zhi-tel-but only one-sided-ron-nie - with one Noah mem-bra-noy).

Additional literature:

Ba-shi-lov V.A. Ancient qi-vi-li-za-tion of Peru and Bo-li-vii. M., 1972;

Gar-si-la-so de la Ve-ga. Is-to-riya go-su-dar-st-va in-kov. L., 1974;

Zub-rits-cue Yu.A. In-ki-ke-chua. M., 1975;

Eth-no-che-sky pro-cesses in the countries of South America-ri-ki. M., 1981;

Piedras y oro. El arte en el im-pe-rio de los incas. Madrid, 1988;

Be-rez-kin Yu.E. In-ki: is-to-ri-che-sky experience of im-pe-rii. L., 1991; he is. Sa-kra-li-za-tion of power in pre-Ispanic Peru // Sa-kra-li-za-tion of power in the history of qi-vi-li-za -tions. M., 2005. Part 1;

El culto estatal del imperio inca / Ed. M.S. Ziolkowski. Warsz., 1991;

D'Altroy T.N. Provincial power in the Inka empire. Wash., 1992;

González Carré E. Los señoríos Chankas. Lima, 1992;

Farrington I.S. Ritual geography, settlement patterns and the characterization of the provinces of the Inca heartland // World Archaeology. 1992 Vol. 23. No. 3;

Pärssinen M. Tawantinsuyu, the Inca state and its political organization. Hels., 1992;

Ma-tos R. Pumpu. Centro administrativo inca de la Puna de Junín. Lima, 1994

Illustrations:

Bronze knife-thu-mi (pro-is-ho-dits ter-ri-to-rii Peru). 15th-16th centuries Met-ro-po-li-ten-mu-zey (New York). BDT archive;

Ke-ra-mi-che-sky "ari-ball" (pro-is-ho-dits ter-ri-to-ri Peru). 15 - beg. 16th centuries Met-ro-po-li-ten-mu-zey (New York). BDT archive;

Ke-ra-mi-che-sky model of the manor-by (nay-de-nav Kus-ko). Museum and in-sti-tut ar-heo-logia uni-ver-si-te-ta in San-An-to-nio-Abad (Is-pa-niya). BDT archive;

In-gre-ball towers (chul-pas) know on the mountain of the lake Ti-ti-ka-ka. BDT archive;

Mu-mi-fi-ci-ro-van-nye os-tan-ki re-byon-ka (nai-de-ny in El Plo-mo); a headdress made of feathers kon-do-ra, a cloak of wool al-pa-ki, next to the house - uk-ra-shen-nye su-moch-ka with leaves- mi ko-ki, sta-tu-et-ki of women, two lamas, etc. 16th century. Museum of Sant-ya-go (Chi-li). BDT archive;

De-re-vyan-ny ku-bok-ke-ro. Con. 17th-18th centuries Brooklyn Museum (New York). BDT archive;

Pa-no-ra-ma city of Ma-chu-Pik-chu (Pe-ru). BRE archive.

The Inca Empire was the most big empire in pre-Columbian America and perhaps the largest empire in the world, which existed in the early 16th century.

Its political structure was the most complex of all the indigenous peoples of the Americas.

The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cuzco (modern Peru).

The Inca civilization originated in the highlands of Peru in the early 13th century. The last fortress was conquered by the Spaniards in 1572.

From 1438 to 1533, the Incas inhabited much of western South America, centered on the Andean mountains. At its height, the Inca Empire included the territories of Ecuador, western and central Bolivia, northwestern Argentina, northern and central Chile, and some lands of southwestern Colombia.

The official language was Quechua. There were many forms of worship of the gods in the empire, but the rulers encouraged the worship of Inti, the supreme god of the Incas.

The Incas considered their king, Sapa Inca, "the son of the sun".

The Inca Empire was unique in that it did not have anything that the civilizations of the Old World were famous for.

For example, the inhabitants did not have wheeled Vehicle, cattle, they also lacked knowledge about the extraction and processing of iron and steel, and the Incas also did not have a structured writing system.

Monumental architecture, a system of roads covering all corners of the empire and a special style of weaving were characteristic of the Inca empire.

Scholars believe that the Inca economy was feudal, slave and socialist at the same time. It is believed that the Incas did not have money and markets. Instead, residents exchanged goods and services on a barter basis.

A kind of tax was considered the very labor of a person for the benefit of the empire (for example, the cultivation of crops). The Inca rulers, in turn, supported the work of people and organized large-scale feasts for their subjects on holidays.

The name "Inca" is translated as "ruler", "lord". In Quechua, the term is used to refer to the ruling class or ruling family.

The Incas made up a small percentage of all the inhabitants of the empire (from 15,000 to 40,000 people with a total population of 10 million people). The Spaniards began to use the term "Incas" to refer to all the inhabitants of the empire.

Story

The Inca Empire was the leading civilization in the Andes, with a history spanning thousands of years. The Andean civilization is one of the five civilizations in the world, which scientists call "primordial", that is, indigenous, and not derived from other civilizations.

The Inca Empire was preceded by two large empires in the Andes: Tiwanaku (circa 300-1100 AD), located around Lake Titicaca, and Huari (circa 600-1100 AD), centered near the modern city of Ayacucho.

Huari was located on the territory of Cusco for about 400 years.

According to the legends of the Incas, their ancestors emerged from three caves: brothers and sisters who came to new lands eventually built a temple of stone and began to populate the lands around. Soon they reached Cuzco and began to build their dwellings throughout the territory.

The empire expanded. Aiyar Manco is considered its founder.

The rulers of the empire changed quite often. Many wanted to reign over large territories. However, by the time the Inca conquistadors arrived on the lands, all the tribes united in a single desire to maintain their independence.

Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers reached the cherished lands of the Incas by 1525. In 1529, the king of Spain gave permission to conquer rich lands in Northern and South America.

The military forces of the Europeans invaded the lands of the Incas in 1532, when the population was demoralized by another war for power over the empire.

At the same time, smallpox was rampant in Central America, which caused the death of a large number of the local population.

European soldiers led by Pizarro invaded the lands of the Incas and, having technological superiority over the "semi-wild" Incas, quickly gained power over the territories (the Spaniards also found allies who were negatively disposed towards the policies of the Inca emperors).

The conquistadors planted the Christian faith in the region, plundered the houses of the inhabitants and put their governor at the head of the empire. And in 1536 the last Inca fortress was destroyed, the emperor was overthrown, and the Spaniards gained power over the entire territory of the vast empire.

Population and language

The number of people who inhabited the empire during its heyday is not known for certain. Historians give numbers from 4 to 37 million.

The main form of communication in the empire was the language of the Incas, as well as various dialects of Quechua.

Phonetically, the languages ​​differed very much: the Andeans could not understand the population living next to Colombia.

Some languages ​​have survived to this day (for example, the Aymara language, which is spoken by some inhabitants of Bolivia to this day). The influence of the Incas survived their empire, as the Spaniards who conquered the lands continued to use the Quechua language for communication.

Culture and life

Archaeologists are still finding unique items related to the life and life of the Incas.

Architecture was the most sought after art in the empire. The most important structures were made of stone (using special masonry).

Also, historians find evidence that the Incas were interested in weaving, as well as in the sciences: mathematics, chronology in principle, medicine, etc.

The discoveries of the Incas in some areas became the foundation for the development of scientific thought throughout the world (especially in Europe).

History of the Inca Empire

The Inca Empire is the largest of all the states that existed in ancient South America, which existed from the 11th to the 16th century AD. Its territory was very extensive - it occupied land from the modern Colombian city of Pasto to the Maule River in Chile. In general, it included the entire territory of the modern states of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, except for its eastern regions, overgrown with insurmountable jungle. It also included part of modern Chile, Argentina and Colombia. For the first time, Europeans came here after the ruin of the Aztec Tenochtitlan in Central America - the Portuguese Alejo Garcia arrived here in 1525. The Inca Empire managed to hold out under the blows of the conquistadors, who became interested in new lands, until 1572, but already in 1533 the Inca power lost most of its territory. Today there is a hypothesis according to which the ancient Incas managed to hide in the undiscovered city of Paititi until the middle of the 18th century.

According to archaeologists, the Incas did not independently become one of the most developed (relatively) peoples in the Americas. The ancient Incas adopted most of their achievements from the former peoples, as well as from those peoples that they subjugated. Before the Incas established their control over a large part of South America, other civilizations took place on this continent. In particular, the Moche culture, which developed irrigation systems, Huari, which most resembled the emerging power of the Incas, the Chimu culture with unique architecture, and many others.

Near the Andean mountain range and on the coast adjacent to it in the period from the first millennium BC. before the first millennium AD relatively advanced civilizations appeared, the economic basis of which was agriculture. The history of the Inca state began in the 12th century AD. on the coast of Lake Titicaca, a people declared itself, the ruler of which was the Inca, who gave the name to his people. The Incas lived in the old place briefly, not for long. The supreme ruler decided to move his people to the city of Cusco, which marked the beginning of the history of the Incas and their expansion to the surrounding lands. By the 15-16th century, the Inca civilization had spread to a significant part of the territory of the present-day states of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, and even reached modern Colombia.

The Inca leader Manco Capacu, thanks to whom the history of the Inca state began, built the city of Cusco at an altitude of more than 3.4 thousand meters above sea level. The city is spread out in a deep valley between two chains of mountain ranges. Under his rule, the territory of the state gradually increased. Subsequent chieftains began to bear the title of Inca as meaning king. Inca Yahuar Huakak organized in the empire something like a regular army, which, however, became the largest force in all of South America. However, the greatest conquests occurred during the reign of Inca Pachacuti, thanks to which the history of the Incas passed into the period of the empire.

However, in the 15th century, the Incas, in short, were not friendly with each other. After the reign of the eleventh Inca - Huayna Capac, two sons remained, who started a war among themselves, dividing the empire into two opposing camps. The war ended with Atahualpa's victory over Huascar, shortly before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors.

Carrying out their conquests, the Incas equally effectively used both their army and politics - they persuaded the elite to cooperate in those places that were subject to conquest. At the same time, before the attack, the Incas sent several times to the rulers of certain lands a proposal to join the empire. The civilization of the Incas, spreading further and further across the continent, forced all conquered peoples to learn their language. Laws and customs were also imposed on the occupied territories. However, they did not prohibit local beliefs, provided that the conquered peoples would worship the supreme Inca deity - Inti. In addition, folk crafts were actively supported, each conquered people wore their own outfits. This was done so that the status and origin of any inhabitant of the Inca empire could be determined by clothing.

The Inca country was distinguished by a clear division of society into warriors and those who were not them. Only representatives of the ruling elite of the empire, or their proteges, who must necessarily belong to the Inca ethnic group, could lead the armies of the Incas. Interestingly, the Inca country was not completely monarchical - power in it belonged not only to the ruler of the Inca, but also to the governor of the capital city of Cusco. According to the historian Juan de Betanzos, he was engaged in economic affairs in the empire, and provided the army with everything necessary.

Section 2 - Temple of the Incas

This short article will talk about ancient temple Inca civilization

Section 3 - City of the Incas

Although the center of the Inca empire was in the city of Cusco, in popular culture Another Inca city became widespread - Machu Picchu

THE INCAS
an Indian tribe that lived in Peru and created, shortly before the Spanish conquest, a vast empire centered in Cuzco, in the Peruvian Andes. The Inca Empire, one of two empires that existed in the New World at the time of Columbus (the other being the Aztec), stretched from north to south from Colombia to Central Chile and included the territories of present-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, northern Chile and northwestern Argentina . The Indians called the Inca only the emperor, and the conquistadors used this word to refer to the entire tribe, which in the pre-Columbian era, apparently, used the self-name "capac-kuna" ("great", "illustrious"). landscapes and natural conditions The former Inca Empire was very diverse. In the mountains between 2150 and 3000 m a.s.l. temperate climatic zones are located, favorable for intensive agriculture. Huge in the southeast Mountain chain It is divided into two ridges, between which at an altitude of 3840 m there is a vast plateau with Lake Titicaca. This and other high plateaus extending south and east of Bolivia all the way to northwestern Argentina are called altiplanos. These treeless grassy plains are in the continental climate zone with hot sunny days and cool nights. Many Andean tribes lived on the altiplano. To the southeast of Bolivia, the mountains break off and give way to the boundless expanse of the Argentine pampa. The Pacific coastline of Peru, starting from 3°S. and up to the Maule River in Chile, is a continuous zone of deserts and semi-deserts. The reason for this is the cold Antarctic Humboldt Current, which cools the air currents coming from the sea to the mainland and prevents them from condensing. However, coastal waters are very rich in plankton and, accordingly, fish, and fish attract seabirds, whose droppings (guano), covering deserted coastal islands, are extremely valuable fertilizer. Coastal plains, stretching from north to south for 3200 km, do not exceed 80 km in width. Approximately every 50 km they are crossed by rivers flowing into the ocean. Ancient cultures flourished in the river valleys, based on irrigated agriculture. The Incas managed to connect two different zones of Peru, the so-called. Sierra (mountainous) and Costa (coastal), into a single social, economic and cultural space. The eastern spurs of the Andes are dotted with deep wooded valleys and turbulent rivers. Further to the east stretch the jungle - the Amazonian selva. The Incas called "Yungas" the hot, humid foothills and their inhabitants. The local Indians offered fierce resistance to the Incas, who were never able to subdue them.
STORY
pre-Inca period. The culture of the Incas was formed relatively late. Long before the appearance of the Incas on the historical scene, back in the 3rd millennium BC, settled tribes lived on the coast, who were engaged in the manufacture of cotton fabrics and grew maize, pumpkins and beans. The oldest of the great Andean cultures is the Chavin culture (12th-8th centuries BC - 4th century AD). Its center, the city of Chavin de Huantar, located in the Central Andes, retained its importance even in the Inca era. Later, other cultures developed on the northern coast, among which the early class state of Mochica (ca. 1st century BC - 8th century AD) stands out, creating magnificent works of architecture, ceramics and weaving. On south coast the mysterious Paracas culture flourished (c. 4th century BC - 4th century AD), famous for its fabrics, undoubtedly the most skillful in all pre-Columbian America. Paracas influenced the early Nazca culture, which developed further south in five oasis valleys. In the basin of Lake Titicaca, approx. 8th c. the great Tiahuanaco culture was formed. The capital and ceremonial center of Tiahuanaco, located on the southeastern tip of the lake, are built from hewn stone slabs fastened with bronze spikes. The famous Gate of the Sun is carved from a huge stone monolith. In the upper part there is a wide bas-relief belt with images of the Sun God, who weeps in the form of condors and mythological creatures. The motif of the weeping deity can be traced in many Andean and coastal cultures, in particular in the Huari culture, which developed near the present Ayacucho. Apparently, it was from Huari that religious and military expansion took place down the Pisco valley towards the coast. Judging by the spread of the weeping god motif, from the 10th to the 13th centuries. the state of Tiahuanaco subjugated most of the peoples of the Costa. After the collapse of the empire, local tribal associations, freed from external oppression, created their own state formations. The most significant of them was the state of Chimu-Chimor (14th century - 1463), which fought with the Incas, with its capital Chan Chan (near the present port of Trujillo). This city with huge stepped pyramids, irrigated gardens and stone-lined pools covered an area of ​​​​20.7 square meters. km. One of the centers of ceramic production and weaving has developed here. The state of Chimu, which extended its power along the 900-kilometer line of the Peruvian coast, had an extensive network of roads. Thus, having an ancient and high cultural tradition in the past, the Incas were rather heirs than founders of Peruvian culture.

First Inca. The legendary first Inca Manco Capac founded Cuzco around the beginning of the 12th century. The city lies at an altitude of 3416 m above sea level. in a deep valley running from north to south between two steep ridges of the Andes. According to legend, Manco Capac, at the head of his tribe, came to this valley from the south. At the direction of the sun god, his father, he threw a golden rod at his feet and, when it was swallowed up by the earth (a good sign of its fertility), he founded a city in this place. Historical sources, partially confirmed by archeological data, indicate that the history of the rise of the Incas, one of the countless Andean tribes, begins in the 12th century, and their ruling dynasty has 13 names - from Manco Capac to Atahualpa, who was killed by the Spaniards in 1533.
Conquests. The Incas began to expand their possessions from the territories immediately adjacent to the Cusco Valley. By 1350, during the reign of Inca Rocky, they conquered all the lands near Lake Titicaca in the south, and the nearby valleys in the east. Soon they moved north and further east and subjugated the territories in the upper reaches of the Urubamba River, after which they directed their expansion to the west. Here they faced fierce resistance from the Sora and Rukan tribes, but emerged victorious from the confrontation. Around 1350, the Incas built a suspension bridge across the deep canyon of the Apurimac River. Previously, it was crossed by three bridges in the southwest, but now the Incas made a direct route from Cuzco to Andahuaylas. This bridge, the longest in the empire (45 m), was called by the Incas "huacachaca", the sacred bridge. A conflict with the powerful militant tribe of the Chanca, who controlled the Apurimac Pass, became inevitable. At the end of the reign of Viracocha (d. 1437), the Chanca made a sudden raid on the lands of the Incas and laid siege to Cusco. Viracocha fled to the Urubamba valley, leaving his son Pachacutec (lit. "earth shaker") to defend the capital. The heir brilliantly coped with the task assigned to him and utterly defeated the enemies. During the reign of Pachacutec (1438-1463), the Incas expanded their possessions to the north to Lake Junin, and in the south they conquered the entire basin of Lake Titicaca. Pachacutec's son Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493) extended the power of the Incas to the territory of present-day Chile, Bolivia, Argentina and Ecuador. In 1463 the troops of Tupac Inca Yupanqui conquered the state of Chima, and its rulers were taken to Cusco as hostages. The last conquests were made by Emperor Huayna Capac, who came to power in 1493, a year after Columbus reached the New World. He annexed the Chachapoyas empire in northern Peru, on the right bank of the Marañon River in its upper reaches, subjugated the warlike tribes of the island of Puna near Ecuador and the adjacent coast in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bpresent Guayaquil, and in 1525 the northern border of the empire reached the Ancasmayo River, where the border between Ecuador now lies. and Colombia.
INCA EMPIRE AND CULTURE
Language. Quechua, the language of the Incas, has a very distant relationship with the Aymara language, which was spoken by the Indians who lived near Lake Titicaca. It is not known what language the Incas spoke before Pachacutec raised Quechua to the rank in 1438. state language. Through a policy of conquest and migration, Quechua spread throughout the empire and is still spoken by most Peruvian Indians to this day.
Agriculture. Initially, the population of the Inca state consisted for the most part of farmers who, if necessary, took up arms. Their daily life was subject to the agricultural cycle, and under the guidance of connoisseurs, they turned the empire into an important center for the cultivation of plants. More than half of all food consumed in the world today comes from the Andes. Among them are over 20 varieties of corn and 240 varieties of potatoes, camote (sweet potatoes), squash and pumpkin, various varieties of beans, cassava (from which flour was made), peppers, peanuts and quinoa (wild buckwheat). The most important agricultural crop of the Incas was the potato, which can withstand severe cold and grow at altitudes up to 4600 m above sea level. Alternately freezing and thawing potatoes, the Incas dehydrated them to the point that they turned them into a dry powder called chuno. Corn (sara) was grown at altitudes up to 4100 m above sea level. and consumed in various types: cheese on the cob (choklo), dried and lightly fried (kolyo), in the form of hominy (mote) and turned into an alcoholic drink (saraiyaka, or chicha). To make the latter, women chewed corn kernels and spat the pulp into a vat, where the resulting mass, under the influence of saliva enzymes, fermented and released alcohol. In that era, all Peruvian tribes were at approximately the same technological level. The work was carried out jointly. The main tool of the farmer's labor was the taklya, a primitive digging stick - a wooden stake with a point fired for strength. Arable land was available, but by no means in abundance. Rains in the Andes usually fall from December to May, but dry years are not uncommon. Therefore, the Incas irrigated the land with canals, many of which testify to high level engineering thought. To protect soils from erosion, terraced agriculture was used by pre-Inca tribes, and the Incas improved this technology. The Andean peoples practiced predominantly sedentary agriculture and rarely resorted to slash-and-burn agriculture, adopted by the Indians of Mexico and Central America, in which areas cleared of forests were sown for 1-2 years and left as soon as the soil was depleted. This is explained by the fact that the Central American Indians did not have natural fertilizers, with the exception of rotten fish and human excrement, while in Peru the farmers of the coast had huge reserves of guano, and in the mountains llama (taki) manure was used for fertilizer.
Lamas. These camelids are descended from wild guanacos that were domesticated thousands of years before the arrival of the Incas. Lamas endure alpine cold and desert heat; they serve as pack animals capable of carrying up to 40 kg of cargo; they give wool for making clothes and meat - it is sometimes dried in the sun, calling it "charki". Llamas, like camels, tend to defecate in one place, so that their dung is easy to collect to fertilize the fields. Lamas played an important role in the formation of the settled agricultural cultures of Peru.
social organization. Islew. At the base of the social pyramid of the Inca empire was a kind of community - Ailyu. It was formed from family clans who lived together in the territory allotted to them, jointly owned land and livestock, and shared crops among themselves. Almost everyone belonged to one or another community, was born and died in it. Communities were small and large - up to the whole city. The Incas did not know individual landownership: the land could only belong to the ailyu or, later, the emperor and, as it were, was rented out to a member of the community. Every autumn there was a redistribution of land - plots increased or decreased depending on the size of the family. All agricultural work in the Islew was done jointly. At the age of 20, men were supposed to marry. If the young man himself could not find a mate, a wife was chosen for him. In the lower social strata, the strictest monogamy was maintained, while the representatives of the ruling class practiced polygamy. Some women had the opportunity to leave the ailya and improve their situation. We are talking about the "chosen ones" who, for their beauty or special talents, could be taken to Cuzco or to the provincial center, where they were taught the art of cooking, weaving or religious rituals. Dignitaries often married the "chosen ones" they liked, and some became the concubines of the Inca himself.
State of Tahuantinsuyu. The name of the Inca empire - Tahuantinsuyu - literally means "four connected cardinal points". Four roads ran out of Cuzco in different directions, and each, regardless of its length, bore the name of the part of the empire where it led. Antisuyu included all the lands east of Cuzco - the Eastern Cordillera and the Amazonian selva. From here, the Incas were threatened with raids by tribes that they had not pacified. Continsuyu united the western lands, including the conquered cities of the Costa - from Chan Chan in the north to Rimak in Central Peru (the location of present-day Lima) and Arequipa in the south. Collasuyu, the most extensive part of the empire, extended south from Cuzco, covering Bolivia with Lake Titicaca and parts of modern Chile and Argentina. Chinchasuyu ran north to Rumichaki. Each of these parts of the empire was ruled by an apo, related by blood to the Inca and answerable only to him.
Decimal administrative system. The social and, accordingly, the economic organization of Inca society was based, with some regional differences, on a decimal administrative-hierarchical system. The accounting unit was purik - an adult capable man who has a household and is able to pay taxes. Ten households had their own, so to speak, "foreman" (the Incas called him pacha-kamayok), a hundred households were headed by a pacha-kuraka, a thousand - by a fry (usually managing a large village), ten thousand - by the provincial governor (omo-kuraka), and ten The provinces made up a "quarter" of the empire and were ruled by the apo mentioned above. Thus, for every 10,000 households, there were 1,331 officials of various ranks.
Inca. The new emperor was usually elected by a council of members of the royal family. Direct succession to the throne was not always respected. As a rule, the emperor was chosen from the sons of the lawful wife (koya) of the deceased ruler. The Inca had one official wife with countless concubines. So, according to some estimates, Huayna Capac had about five hundred sons alone, who happened to live already under Spanish rule. His offspring, who constituted a special royal ailya, the Inca appointed to the most honorable positions. The Inca Empire was a true theocracy, since the emperor was not only the supreme ruler and priest, but also, in the eyes of ordinary people, demigod. In this totalitarian state, the emperor had absolute power, limited only by customs and fear of rebellion.
Taxes. Each purik was obliged to partially work for the state. This compulsory labor service was called "mita". Only state dignitaries and priests were exempted from it. Each aylyu, in addition to its own land allotment, jointly cultivated the field of the Sun and the field of the Inca, giving the crops from these fields to the priesthood and the state, respectively. Another type of labor service extended to public Works- mining and construction of roads, bridges, temples, fortresses, royal residences. All these works were carried out under the supervision of experts-professionals. With the help of the kipu knot letter, an accurate record was kept of the fulfillment of duties by each aylyu. In addition to labor duties, each purik was a member of the detachments of rural law enforcement officers and could be called to war at any moment. If he went to war, the community members cultivated his plot of land.
Colonization. In order to subjugate and assimilate the conquered peoples, the Incas involved them in a system of labor duties. As soon as the Incas conquered a new territory, they expelled all unreliable people from there and installed Quechua speakers. The latter were called "mita-kona" (in the Spanish vowel "mitamaes"). The remaining local residents were not forbidden to observe their customs, wear traditional clothes and speak their native language, but all officials were required to know Quechua. The mita-kona was entrusted with military tasks (protection of border fortresses), managerial and economic ones, and in addition, the colonists had to introduce the conquered peoples to the Inca culture. If the road under construction ran through a completely deserted area, these areas were settled by mita-kona, who were obliged to oversee the road and bridges and thereby spread the power of the emperor everywhere. The colonists received significant social and economic privileges, similar to the Roman legionaries who served in outlying provinces. The integration of the conquered peoples into a single cultural and economic space was so deep that 7 million people still speak Quechua, the Ailyu tradition is preserved among the Indians, and the influence of the Inca culture in folklore, agricultural practice, and psychology is still tangible over a vast territory.
Roads, bridges and couriers. Excellent roads with a well-functioning courier service made it possible to keep a vast territory under unified control. The Incas used the roads laid by their predecessors and built ca. 16,000 km of new roads designed for all weather conditions. Since the pre-Columbian civilizations did not know the wheel, the Inca roads were intended for pedestrians and caravans of llamas. The road along the ocean coast, stretching for 4055 km from Tumbes in the north to the Maule River in Chile, had a standard width of 7.3 m. Mountain road was somewhat narrower (from 4.6 to 7.3 m), but longer (5230 km). At least a hundred bridges were built on it - wooden, stone or cable; four bridges crossed the gorges of the Apurimac River. Every 7.2 km there were distance signs, and every 19-29 km there were stations for travelers to rest. In addition, courier stations were located every 2.5 km. Couriers (chasks) transmitted news and orders by relay, and in this way information was transmitted over 2000 km in 5 days.

Saving information. Historical events and legends were kept in memory by specially trained storytellers. The Incas invented a mnemonic for storing information called "kipu" (lit. "knot"). It was a rope or stick, from which colored cords with knots hung. The information contained in the kipu was orally explained by a specialist in knot writing, kipu-kamayok, otherwise it would have remained incomprehensible. Each ruler of the province kept a lot of kipu-kamayok with him, which kept meticulous records of the population, warriors, and taxes. The Incas used the decimal system, they even had a zero symbol (skipping the knot). The Spanish conquistadors left rave reviews for the quipu system. The courtiers of the quipu-kamayok performed the duties of historiographers, compiling lists of the deeds of the Inca. Their efforts created official version history of the state, excluding mention of the achievements of the conquered peoples and asserting the absolute priority of the Incas in the formation of the Andean civilization.
Religion. The Inca religion was closely associated with public administration. The demiurge god Viracocha was considered the ruler of all things, he was assisted by deities of a lower rank, among which the sun god Inti was most revered. The veneration of the sun god, who became a symbol of Inca culture, was of an official nature. The Inca religion included numerous decentralized cults of gods who personified natural realities. In addition, the veneration of magical and sacred objects (waka) was practiced, which could be a river, lake, mountain, temple, stones collected from the fields. Religion was practical and permeated the life of the Incas. Agriculture was revered as a sacred occupation, and everything connected with it became huaca. The Incas believed in the immortality of the soul. It was believed that an aristocrat, regardless of his behavior in earthly life, after death enters the abode of the Sun, where it is always warm and abundance reigns; as for commoners, only virtuous people got there after death, and sinners went to a kind of hell (oko-paka), where they suffered from cold and hunger. Thus, religion and customs influenced the behavior of people. The ethics and morality of the Incas boiled down to one principle: "Ama sua, ama lyulya, ama chela" - "Do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy."
Art. Inca art gravitated towards rigor and beauty. Weaving from llama wool was distinguished by a high artistic level, although it was inferior in richness of decor to the fabrics of the peoples of the Costa. Carving of semi-precious stones and shells, which the Incas received from the coastal peoples, was widely practiced. However, the main art of the Incas was casting from precious metals. Almost all now known Peruvian gold deposits were developed by the Incas. Goldsmiths and silversmiths lived in separate city blocks and were exempt from taxes. The best works of Inca jewelers perished during the conquest. According to the testimony of the Spaniards, who first saw Cusco, the city blinded with a golden sheen. Some buildings were covered with gold plates imitating masonry. The thatched roofs of the temples had golden inclusions imitating straws, so that the rays of the setting sun lit them with brilliance, giving the impression that the entire roof was made of gold. In the legendary Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun in Cusco, there was a garden with a golden fountain, around which life-sized stalks of maize made of gold, with leaves and cobs, "grew" from golden "earth" and "grazed" on golden grass twenty llamas of gold - again - life-size.

Architecture. In the field of material culture, the Incas achieved the most impressive accomplishments in architecture. Although Inca architecture is inferior to Mayan in richness of decor and Aztec in emotional impact, it has no equal in that era either in the New or Old World in terms of boldness of engineering solutions, grandiose scales of urban planning, and skillful arrangement of volumes. Inca monuments, even in ruins, are amazing in their number and size. An idea of ​​the high level of Inca urban planning is given by the Machu Picchu fortress, built at an altitude of 3000 m in a saddle between two peaks of the Andes. Inca architecture is characterized by extraordinary plasticity. The Incas erected buildings on the processed surfaces of rocks, fitting stone blocks together without lime mortar, so that the building was perceived as a natural element of the natural environment. In the absence of rocks, bricks baked in the sun were used. Inca craftsmen were able to cut stones according to given patterns and work with huge stone blocks. The fortress (pukara) of Sascahuaman, which protected Cusco, is undoubtedly one of the greatest creations of fortification art. 460 m long, the fortress consists of three tiers of stone walls with a total height of 18 m. The walls have 46 ledges, corners and buttresses. In the cyclopean masonry of the foundation, there are stones weighing more than 30 tons with beveled edges. It took at least 300,000 stone blocks to build the fortress. All the stones are irregularly shaped, but fitted together so tightly that the walls have withstood countless earthquakes and deliberate attempts at destruction. The fortress has towers, underground passages, living quarters and an internal water supply system. The Incas began building in 1438 and finished 70 years later, in 1508. According to some estimates, 30 thousand people were involved in the construction.

THE FALL OF THE INCA EMPIRE
It is still difficult to understand how a pitiful handful of Spaniards could conquer a powerful empire, although many considerations are put forward on this score. By that time, the Aztec empire had already been conquered by Hernan Cortes (1519-1521), but the Incas did not know about this, since they had no direct contact with the Aztecs and the Maya. The Incas first heard of white people in 1523 or 1525, when a certain Alejo Garcia, at the head of the Chiriguano Indians, attacked an empire outpost in the Gran Chaco, an arid lowland on the southeastern frontier of the empire. In 1527, Francisco Pizarro landed briefly at Tumbes on the northwestern Peruvian coast and soon sailed away, leaving two of his men behind. After that, Ecuador was devastated by an epidemic of smallpox, which was introduced by one of these Spaniards. Emperor Huayna Capac died in 1527. According to legend, he was aware that the empire was too big to rule it from one center in Cusco. Immediately after his death, a dispute for the throne broke out between two of his five hundred sons - Huascar from Cuzco, the offspring of his legal wife, and Atahualpa from Ecuador. The feud between the blood brothers erupted into a five-year devastating civil war in which Atahualpa won a decisive victory just two weeks before Pizarro's second appearance in Peru. The winner and his 40,000th army rested in the provincial center of Cajamarca in the north-west of the country, from where Atahualpa was going to go to Cusco, where the official ceremony of his elevation to the imperial rank was to take place. Pizarro arrived in Tumbes on May 13, 1532 and moved to Cajamarca with 110 foot and 67 horse soldiers. Atahualpa was aware of this from intelligence reports, on the one hand, accurate, on the other, biased in the interpretation of facts. So, the scouts assured that horses do not see in the dark, that a man and a horse are a single creature that, when falling, is no longer able to fight, that arquebuses emit only thunders, and even then only twice, that Spanish long steel swords are completely unsuitable for battle. A detachment of conquistadors on its way could be destroyed in any of the gorges of the Andes. Having occupied Cajamarca, protected by walls on three sides, the Spaniards conveyed to the emperor an invitation to come to the city to meet with them. To this day no one can explain why Atahualpa let himself be drawn into a trap. He was well aware of the strength of the foreigners, and the favorite tactic of the Incas themselves was precisely the ambush. Perhaps the emperor was driven by some special motives beyond the understanding of the Spaniards. On the evening of November 16, 1532, Atahualpa appeared on Cajamarca Square in all the splendor of imperial regalia and accompanied by a large retinue - however, unarmed, as Pizarro demanded. After a short slurred conversation between the Inca demigod and the Christian priest, the Spaniards attacked the Indians and killed almost all of them in half an hour. During the massacre of the Spaniards, only Pizarro suffered, accidentally wounded in the arm by his own soldier, when he blocked Atahualpa, whom he wanted to capture alive and unharmed. After that, with the exception of a few fierce skirmishes in different places, the Incas did not actually offer serious resistance to the conquerors until 1536. The captive Atahualpa agreed to buy his freedom by filling the room where he was kept twice with silver and once with gold. However, this did not save the emperor. The Spaniards accused him of conspiracy and "crimes against the Spanish state" and, after a short formal trial on August 29, 1533, strangled him with a garrote. All these events plunged the Incas into a state of strange apathy. The Spaniards, almost without resistance, reached great road to Cusco and on November 15, 1533 they took the city.
New Ink State. Manco II. Having made the former Inca capital of Cuzco the center of Spanish rule, Pizarro decided to give the new government a semblance of legitimacy and for this he appointed Huayn Capac's grandson Manco II as the emperor's successor. The new Inca had no real power and was subjected to constant humiliation by the Spaniards, but, nurturing plans for an uprising, showed patience. In 1536, when part of the conquistadors, led by Diego Almagro, set off on an aggressive expedition to Chile, Manco, under the pretext of searching for imperial treasures, slipped out of the supervision of the Spaniards and raised an uprising. The moment for this was chosen favorable. Almagro and Pizarro, at the head of their supporters, started a dispute over the division of military spoils, which soon developed into an open war. By that time, the Indians had already felt the yoke of the new power and realized that they could only get rid of it by force. Having destroyed all the Spaniards in the vicinity of Cuzco, four armies attacked the capital on April 18, 1536. The defense of the city was led by an experienced soldier Hernando Pizarro, brother of Francisco Pizarro. He had only 130 Spanish soldiers and 2000 Indian allies at his disposal, but he showed extraordinary military skill and withstood the siege. Simultaneously, the Incas attacked Lima, founded by Pizarro in 1535 and declared the new capital of Peru. Since the city was surrounded by flat terrain, the Spaniards successfully used cavalry and quickly defeated the Indians. Pizarro sent four detachments of conquistadors to help his brother, but they could not break through to the besieged Cusco. The three-month siege of Cusco was lifted due to the fact that many soldiers left the Inca army in connection with the start of agricultural work; besides, the army of Almagro, returning from Chile, was approaching the city. Manco II and thousands of people loyal to him retreated to previously prepared positions in the Vilcabamba mountain range northeast of Cuzco. The Indians took with them the preserved mummies of the former Inca rulers. Here Manco II created the so-called. New Ink State. In order to protect the southern road from the military attacks of the Indians, Pizarro set up a military camp in Ayacucho. Meanwhile, continued Civil War between the warriors of Pizarro and the "Chileans" of Almagro. In 1538 Almagro was captured and executed, and three years later his supporters killed Pizarro. The warring parties of the conquistadors were led by new leaders. In the Battle of Chupas near Ayacucho (1542), Inca Manco helped the "Chileans", and when they were defeated, he sheltered six Spanish fugitives in his possessions. The Spaniards taught the Indians horseback riding, firearms, and blacksmithing. Arranging ambushes on the imperial road, the Indians obtained weapons, armor, money and were able to equip a small army. During one of these raids, a copy of the "New Laws" adopted in 1544, with the help of which the king of Spain tried to limit the abuses of the conquistadors, fell into the hands of the Indians. After reviewing this document, Manco II sent one of his Spaniards, Gomez Perez, to negotiate with Viceroy Blasco Nunez Vela. Since the strife between the conquistadors continued, the viceroy was interested in a compromise. Soon after, the renegade Spaniards, who settled in the New Inca state, quarreled with Manco II, killed him and were executed.
Sayri Tupac and Titu Cusi Yupanqui. The head of the New Inca state was the son of Manco II - Sayri Tupac. During his reign, the borders of the state expanded to the upper reaches of the Amazon, and the population increased to 80 thousand people. In addition to large herds of llamas and alpacas, the Indians raised a fair number of sheep, pigs, and cattle. In 1555 Sayri Tupac launched military operations against the Spaniards. He moved his residence to the warmer climate of the Yucai Valley. Here he was poisoned by those close to him. Power was succeeded by his brother Titu Cusi Yupanqui, who resumed the war. All attempts by the conquistadors to subdue the independent Indians were in vain. In 1565, Fray Diego Rodriguez visited the Inca stronghold of Vilcabamba in order to lure the ruler out of hiding, but his mission was not successful. His reports on the morals of the royal court, the number and combat readiness of the soldiers give an idea of ​​the strength of the New Inca state. The following year, another missionary repeated the same attempt, but during the course of negotiations, Titu Cusi fell ill and died. A monk was blamed for his death and was executed. Subsequently, the Indians killed several more Spanish ambassadors. Tupac Amaru, the last Supreme Inca. After the death of Titu Cusi, another of the sons of Manco II came to power. The Spaniards decided to put an end to the citadel in Vilcabamba, made gaps in the walls and after a fierce battle took the fortress. Tupac Amaru and his commanders, chained with collars, were taken to Cusco. Here in 1572 on the main city square at the confluence a large number people they were beheaded.
Spanish dominance. The colonial authorities of Peru retained some of the administrative forms of the Inca empire, adapting them to their own needs. The colonial administration and the latifundists controlled the Indians through intermediaries - the community elders "kuraka" - and did not interfere in the daily life of the householders. The Spanish authorities, like the Incas, practiced mass migrations of communities and a system of labor duties, and also formed a special class of servants and artisans from the Indians. Corrupt colonial authorities and greedy latifundists created intolerable conditions for the Indians and provoked numerous uprisings that took place throughout the colonial period.
LITERATURE
Bashilov V. Ancient civilizations of Peru and Bolivia. M., 1972 Inka Garcilaso de la Vega. History of the state of the Incas. L., 1974 Zubritsky Yu. Inki Quechua. M., 1975 Culture of Peru. M., 1975 Berezkin Yu. Mochika. L., 1983 Berezkin Yu. Inki. The historical experience of the empire. L., 1991

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

The Indians called the Inca only the emperor, and the conquistadors used this word to refer to the entire tribe, which in the pre-Columbian era, apparently, used the self-name "capac-kuna" ("great", "illustrious").

The landscapes and natural conditions of the former Inca Empire were very diverse. In the mountains between 2150 and 3000 m a.s.l. temperate climatic zones are located, favorable for intensive agriculture. In the southeast, a huge mountain range is divided into two ranges, between which, at an altitude of 3840 m, there is a vast plateau with Lake Titicaca. This and other high plateaus extending south and east of Bolivia all the way to northwestern Argentina are called altiplanos. These treeless grassy plains are in the continental climate zone with hot sunny days and cool nights. Many Andean tribes lived on the altiplano. To the southeast of Bolivia, the mountains break off and give way to the boundless expanse of the Argentine pampa.

The Pacific coastline of Peru, starting from 3°S. and up to the Maule River in Chile, is a continuous zone of deserts and semi-deserts. The reason for this is the cold Antarctic Humboldt Current, which cools the air currents coming from the sea to the mainland and prevents them from condensing. However, coastal waters are very rich in plankton and, accordingly, fish, and fish attract seabirds, whose droppings (guano), covering deserted coastal islands, are extremely valuable fertilizer. Coastal plains, stretching from north to south for 3200 km, do not exceed 80 km in width. Approximately every 50 km they are crossed by rivers flowing into the ocean. Ancient cultures flourished in the river valleys, based on irrigated agriculture.

The Incas managed to connect two different zones of Peru, the so-called. Sierra (mountainous) and Costa (coastal), into a single social, economic and cultural space.

The eastern spurs of the Andes are dotted with deep wooded valleys and turbulent rivers. Further to the east stretch the jungle - the Amazonian selva. The Incas called "yungas" the hot, humid foothills and their inhabitants. The local Indians offered fierce resistance to the Incas, who were never able to subdue them.

STORY

pre-Inca period.

The culture of the Incas was formed relatively late. Long before the appearance of the Incas on the historical scene, back in the 3rd millennium BC, settled tribes lived on the coast, who were engaged in the manufacture of cotton fabrics and grew maize, pumpkins and beans. The oldest of the great Andean cultures is the Chavin culture (12th-8th centuries BC - 4th century AD). Its center, the city of Chavin de Huantar, located in the Central Andes, retained its importance even in the Inca era. Later, other cultures developed along the north coast, among which the early class state of Mochica (ca. 1st century BC - 8th century AD) stands out, creating magnificent works of architecture, ceramics and weaving.

The enigmatic Paracas culture (c. 4th century BC - 4th century AD) flourished on the south coast, famous for its textiles, undeniably the finest in pre-Columbian America. Paracas influenced the early Nazca culture, which developed further south in five oasis valleys. In the basin of Lake Titicaca, approx. 8th c. the great Tiahuanaco culture was formed. The capital and ceremonial center of Tiahuanaco, located on the southeastern tip of the lake, are built from hewn stone slabs fastened with bronze spikes. The famous Gate of the Sun is carved from a huge stone monolith. In the upper part there is a wide bas-relief belt with images of the Sun God, who weeps in the form of condors and mythological creatures. The motif of the weeping deity can be traced in many Andean and coastal cultures, in particular in the Huari culture, which developed near the present Ayacucho. Apparently, it was from Huari that religious and military expansion took place down the Pisco valley towards the coast. Judging by the spread of the weeping god motif, from the 10th to the 13th centuries. the state of Tiahuanaco subjugated most of the peoples of the Costa. After the collapse of the empire, local tribal associations, freed from external oppression, created their own state formations. The most significant of them was the state of Chimu-Chimor (14th century - 1463), which fought with the Incas, with its capital Chan Chan (near the present port of Trujillo). This city with huge stepped pyramids, irrigated gardens and stone-lined pools covered an area of ​​​​20.7 square meters. km. One of the centers of ceramic production and weaving has developed here. The state of Chimu, which extended its power along the 900-kilometer line of the Peruvian coast, had an extensive network of roads.

Thus, having an ancient and high cultural tradition in the past, the Incas were rather heirs than founders of Peruvian culture.

First Inca.

The legendary first Inca Manco Capac founded Cuzco around the beginning of the 12th century. The city lies at an altitude of 3416 m above sea level. in a deep valley running from north to south between two steep ridges of the Andes. According to legend, Manco Capac, at the head of his tribe, came to this valley from the south. At the direction of the sun god, his father, he threw a golden rod at his feet and, when it was swallowed up by the earth (a good sign of its fertility), he founded a city in this place. Historical sources, partially confirmed by archeological data, indicate that the history of the rise of the Incas, one of the countless Andean tribes, begins in the 12th century, and their ruling dynasty has 13 names - from Manco Capac to Atahualpa, who was killed by the Spaniards in 1533.

Conquests.

The Incas began to expand their possessions from the territories immediately adjacent to the Cusco Valley. By 1350, during the reign of Inca Rocky, they conquered all the lands near Lake Titicaca in the south, and the nearby valleys in the east. Soon they moved north and further east and subjugated the territories in the upper reaches of the Urubamba River, after which they directed their expansion to the west. Here they faced fierce resistance from the Sora and Rukan tribes, but emerged victorious from the confrontation. Around 1350, the Incas built a suspension bridge across the deep canyon of the Apurimac River. Previously, it was crossed by three bridges in the southwest, but now the Incas made a direct route from Cuzco to Andahuaylas. This bridge, the longest in the empire (45 m), was called by the Incas "huacachaca", the sacred bridge. A conflict with the powerful militant tribe of the Chanca, who controlled the Apurimac Pass, became inevitable. At the end of the reign of Viracocha (d. 1437), the Chanca made a sudden raid on the lands of the Incas and laid siege to Cusco. Viracocha fled to the Urubamba valley, leaving his son Pachacutec (lit. "earth shaker") to defend the capital. The heir brilliantly coped with the task assigned to him and utterly defeated the enemies.

During the reign of Pachacutec (1438-1463), the Incas expanded their possessions to the north to Lake Junin, and in the south they conquered the entire basin of Lake Titicaca. Pachacutec's son Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471–1493) extended the power of the Incas to what is now Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, and Ecuador. In 1463 the troops of Tupac Inca Yupanqui conquered the state of Chima, and its rulers were taken to Cusco as hostages.

The last conquests were made by Emperor Huayna Capac, who came to power in 1493, a year after Columbus reached the New World. He annexed the Chachapoyas empire in northern Peru, on the right bank of the Marañon River in its upper reaches, subjugated the warlike tribes of the island of Puna near Ecuador and the adjacent coast in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bpresent Guayaquil, and in 1525 the northern border of the empire reached the Ancasmayo River, where the border between Ecuador now lies. and Colombia.

INCA EMPIRE AND CULTURE

Language.

Quechua, the language of the Incas, has a very distant relationship with the Aymara language, which was spoken by the Indians who lived near Lake Titicaca. It is not known what language the Incas spoke before Pachacutec elevated Quechua to the rank of the state language in 1438. Through a policy of conquest and migration, Quechua spread throughout the empire and is still spoken by most Peruvian Indians to this day.

Agriculture.

Initially, the population of the Inca state consisted for the most part of farmers who, if necessary, took up arms. Their daily life was subject to the agricultural cycle, and under the guidance of connoisseurs, they turned the empire into an important center for the cultivation of plants. More than half of all food consumed in the world today comes from the Andes. Among them are over 20 varieties of corn and 240 varieties of potatoes, "camote" (sweet potatoes), zucchini and pumpkin, various varieties of beans, cassava (from which flour was made), peppers, peanuts and quinoa (wild buckwheat). The most important agricultural crop of the Incas was the potato, which can withstand severe cold and grow at altitudes up to 4600 m above sea level. Alternately freezing and thawing potatoes, the Incas dehydrated them to such an extent that they turned them into a dry powder called "chuno" . Corn (sara) was grown at altitudes up to 4100 m above sea level. and was consumed in various forms: cheese on the cob (choklo), dried and lightly fried (kolyo), in the form of hominy (mote) and turned into an alcoholic drink (saraiyaka, or chicha). To make the latter, women chewed corn kernels and spat the pulp into a vat, where the resulting mass, under the influence of saliva enzymes, fermented and released alcohol.

In that era, all Peruvian tribes were at approximately the same technological level. The work was carried out jointly. The main tool of the farmer's labor was the taklya. , a primitive digging stick - a wooden stake with a point burned for strength.

Arable land was available, but by no means in abundance. Rains in the Andes usually fall from December to May, but dry years are not uncommon. Therefore, the Incas irrigated the land using canals, many of which testify to a high level of engineering. To protect soils from erosion, terraced agriculture was used by pre-Inca tribes, and the Incas improved this technology.

The Andean peoples practiced predominantly sedentary agriculture and rarely resorted to slash-and-burn agriculture, adopted by the Indians of Mexico and Central America, in which areas cleared of forests were sown for 1–2 years and left as soon as the soil was depleted. This is explained by the fact that the Central American Indians did not have natural fertilizers, with the exception of rotten fish and human excrement, while in Peru the farmers of the coast had huge reserves of guano, and in the mountains llama (taki) manure was used for fertilizer.

Lamas.

These camelids are descended from wild guanacos that were domesticated thousands of years before the arrival of the Incas. Lamas endure alpine cold and desert heat; they serve as pack animals capable of carrying up to 40 kg of cargo; they give wool for making clothes and meat - it is sometimes dried in the sun, calling it "charki". Llamas, like camels, tend to defecate in one place, so that their dung is easy to collect to fertilize the fields. Lamas played an important role in the formation of the settled agricultural cultures of Peru.

social organization.

Islew.

At the base of the social pyramid of the Inca Empire was a kind of community - Ailyu. It was formed from family clans who lived together in the territory allotted to them, jointly owned land and livestock, and shared crops among themselves. Almost everyone belonged to one or another community, was born and died in it. Communities were small and large - up to the whole city. The Incas did not know individual land ownership: the land could only belong to the Ailu or, later, to the emperor and, as it were, rented out to a member of the community. Every autumn there was a redistribution of land - plots increased or decreased depending on the size of the family. All agricultural work in Islew were made together.

At the age of 20, men were supposed to marry. If the young man himself could not find a mate, a wife was chosen for him. In the lower social strata, the strictest monogamy was maintained, while the representatives of the ruling class practiced polygamy.

Some women had the opportunity to leave the ailya and improve their situation. We are talking about the "chosen ones" who, for their beauty or special talents, could be taken to Cusco or to the provincial center, where they were taught the art of cooking, weaving or religious rituals. Dignitaries often married the “chosen ones” they liked, and some became the concubines of the Inca himself.

State of Tahuantinsuyu.

The name of the Inca empire - Tahuantinsuyu - literally means "four connected cardinal points". Four roads ran out of Cuzco in different directions, and each, regardless of its length, bore the name of the part of the empire where it led. Antisuyu included all the lands east of Cusco - the Eastern Cordillera and the Amazonian selva. From here, the Incas were threatened with raids by tribes that they had not pacified. Continsuyu united the western lands, including the conquered cities of the Costa - from Chan Chan in the north to Rimak in Central Peru (the location of the current Lima) and Arequipa in the south. Collasuyu, the most extensive part of the empire, extended south from Cuzco, covering Bolivia with Lake Titicaca and parts of modern Chile and Argentina. Chinchasuyu ran north to Rumichaki. Each of these parts of the empire was ruled by an apo, related by blood to the Inca and answerable only to him.

Decimal administrative system.

The social and, accordingly, the economic organization of Inca society was based, with some regional differences, on a decimal administrative-hierarchical system. The accounting unit was purik - an adult capable man who has a household and is able to pay taxes. Ten households had their own, so to speak, "foreman" (the Incas called him pacha-kamayok), a hundred households were headed by a pacha-kuraka, a thousand - by a fry (usually managing a large village), ten thousand - by the provincial governor (omo-kuraka), and ten The provinces made up a "quarter" of the empire and were ruled by the apo mentioned above. Thus, for every 10,000 households, there were 1,331 officials of various ranks.

Inca.

The new emperor was usually elected by a council of members of the royal family. Direct succession to the throne was not always respected. As a rule, the emperor was chosen from the sons of the lawful wife (koya) of the deceased ruler. The Inca had one official wife with countless concubines. So, according to some estimates, Huayna Capac had about five hundred sons alone, who happened to live already under Spanish rule. His offspring, who constituted a special royal ailya, the Inca appointed to the most honorable positions. The Inca Empire was a true theocracy, since the emperor was not only the supreme ruler and priest, but also, in the eyes of the common people, a demigod. In this totalitarian state, the emperor had absolute power, limited only by customs and fear of rebellion.

Taxes.

Each purik was obliged to partially work for the state. This compulsory labor service was called "mita". Only state dignitaries and priests were exempted from it. Each aylyu, in addition to its own land allotment, jointly cultivated the field of the Sun and the field of the Inca, giving the crops from these fields to the priesthood and the state, respectively. Another type of labor service extended to public works - mining and construction of roads, bridges, temples, fortresses, royal residences. All these works were carried out under the supervision of experts-professionals. With the help of the kipu knot letter, an accurate record was kept of the fulfillment of duties by each aylyu. In addition to labor duties, each purik was a member of the detachments of rural law enforcement officers and could be called to war at any moment. If he went to war, the community members cultivated his plot of land.

Colonization.

In order to subjugate and assimilate the conquered peoples, the Incas involved them in a system of labor duties. As soon as the Incas conquered a new territory, they expelled all unreliable people from there and installed Quechua speakers. The latter were called "mita-kona" (in the Spanish vowel "mitamaes"). The remaining local residents were not forbidden to observe their customs, wear traditional clothes and speak their native language, but all officials were required to know Quechua. The mita-kona was entrusted with military tasks (protection of border fortresses), managerial and economic ones, and in addition, the colonists had to introduce the conquered peoples to the Inca culture. If the road under construction ran through a completely deserted area, these areas were settled by mita-kona, who were obliged to oversee the road and bridges and thereby spread the power of the emperor everywhere. The colonists received significant social and economic privileges, similar to the Roman legionaries who served in outlying provinces. The integration of the conquered peoples into a single cultural and economic space was so deep that 7 million people still speak Quechua, the Ailyu tradition is preserved among the Indians, and the influence of the Inca culture in folklore, agricultural practice, and psychology is still tangible over a vast territory.

Roads, bridges and couriers.

Excellent roads with a well-functioning courier service made it possible to keep a vast territory under unified control. The Incas used the roads laid by their predecessors and built ca. 16,000 km of new roads designed for all weather conditions. Since the pre-Columbian civilizations did not know the wheel, the Inca roads were intended for pedestrians and caravans of llamas. The road along the ocean coast, stretching for 4055 km from Tumbes in the north to the Maule River in Chile, had a standard width of 7.3 m. The Andean mountain road was somewhat narrower (from 4.6 to 7.3 m), but longer (5230 km). At least a hundred bridges were built on it - wooden, stone or cable; four bridges crossed the gorges of the Apurimac River. Every 7.2 km there were distance signs, and every 19–29 km there were stations for travelers to rest. In addition, courier stations were located every 2.5 km. Couriers (chasks) transmitted news and orders by relay, and in this way information was transmitted over 2000 km in 5 days.

Saving information.

Historical events and legends were kept in memory by specially trained storytellers. The Incas invented a mnemonic for storing information called quipu (lit. knot). It was a rope or stick, from which colored cords with knots hung. The information contained in the kipu was orally explained by a specialist in knot writing, kipu-kamayok, otherwise it would have remained incomprehensible. Each ruler of the province kept a lot of kipu-kamayok with him. , who kept a meticulous record of the population, warriors, taxes. The Incas used the decimal system, they even had a zero symbol (skipping the knot). The Spanish conquistadors left rave reviews about the system quipu .

The courtiers of the quipu-kamayok performed the duties of historiographers, compiling lists of the deeds of the Inca. Through their efforts, an official version of the history of the state was created, excluding mention of the achievements of the conquered peoples and asserting the absolute priority of the Incas in the formation of the Andean civilization.

Religion.

The religion of the Incas was closely connected with state administration. The demiurge god Viracocha was considered the ruler of all things, he was assisted by deities of a lower rank, among which the sun god Inti was most revered. The veneration of the sun god, who became a symbol of Inca culture, was of an official nature. The Inca religion included numerous decentralized cults of gods who personified natural realities. In addition, the veneration of magical and sacred objects (waka) was practiced, which could be a river, lake, mountain, temple, stones collected from the fields.

Religion was practical and permeated the life of the Incas. Agriculture was revered as a sacred occupation, and everything connected with it became huaca. The Incas believed in the immortality of the soul. It was believed that an aristocrat, regardless of his behavior in earthly life, after death enters the abode of the Sun, where it is always warm and abundance reigns; as for commoners, only virtuous people got there after death, and sinners went to a kind of hell (oko-paka), where they suffered from cold and hunger. Thus, religion and customs influenced the behavior of people. The ethics and morality of the Incas were reduced to one principle: "Ama sua, ama lyulya, ama chelya" – "Don't steal, don't lie, don't be lazy."

Art.

Inca art gravitated towards rigor and beauty. Weaving from llama wool was distinguished by a high artistic level, although it was inferior in richness of decor to the fabrics of the peoples of the Costa. Carving of semi-precious stones and shells, which the Incas received from the coastal peoples, was widely practiced.

However, the main art of the Incas was casting from precious metals. Almost all now known Peruvian gold deposits were developed by the Incas. Goldsmiths and silversmiths lived in separate city blocks and were exempt from taxes. The best works of Inca jewelers perished during the conquest. According to the testimony of the Spaniards, who first saw Cusco, the city blinded with a golden sheen. Some buildings were covered with gold plates imitating masonry. The thatched roofs of the temples had golden inclusions imitating straws, so that the rays of the setting sun lit them with brilliance, giving the impression that the entire roof was made of gold. In the legendary Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun in Cusco, there was a garden with a golden fountain, around which life-sized stalks of maize made of gold, with leaves and cobs, "grew" from golden "earth" and "grazed" on golden grass twenty llamas of gold - again - life-size.

Architecture.

In the field of material culture, the Incas achieved the most impressive accomplishments in architecture. Although Inca architecture is inferior to Mayan in richness of decoration and Aztec in emotional impact, it has no equal in that era either in the New or Old World in terms of boldness of engineering solutions, grandiose scales of urban planning, skillful arrangement of volumes. Inca monuments, even in ruins, are amazing in their number and size. An idea of ​​the high level of Inca urban planning is given by the Machu Picchu fortress, built at an altitude of 3000 m in a saddle between two peaks of the Andes. Inca architecture is characterized by extraordinary plasticity. The Incas erected buildings on the processed surfaces of rocks, fitting stone blocks together without lime mortar, so that the building was perceived as a natural element of the natural environment. In the absence of rocks, bricks baked in the sun were used. Inca craftsmen were able to cut stones according to given patterns and work with huge stone blocks. The fortress (pucara) of Sascahuaman, which protected Cusco, is undoubtedly one of the greatest creations of fortification art. 460 m long, the fortress consists of three tiers of stone walls with a total height of 18 m. The walls have 46 ledges, corners and buttresses. In the cyclopean masonry of the foundation, there are stones weighing more than 30 tons with beveled edges. It took at least 300,000 stone blocks to build the fortress. All the stones are irregularly shaped, but fitted together so tightly that the walls have withstood countless earthquakes and deliberate attempts at destruction. The fortress has towers, underground passages, living quarters and an internal water supply system. The Incas began building in 1438 and finished 70 years later, in 1508. According to some estimates, 30 thousand people were involved in the construction.

THE FALL OF THE INCA EMPIRE

It is still difficult to understand how a pitiful handful of Spaniards could conquer a powerful empire, although many considerations are put forward on this score. By that time, the Aztec empire had already been conquered by Hernán Cortés (1519–1521), but the Incas did not know about this, since they did not have any direct contact with the Aztecs and the Maya. The Incas first heard of white people in 1523 or 1525, when a certain Alejo Garcia, at the head of the Chiriguano Indians, attacked an empire outpost in the Gran Chaco, an arid lowland on the southeastern frontier of the empire. In 1527, Francisco Pizarro landed briefly at Tumbes on the northwestern Peruvian coast and soon sailed away, leaving two of his men behind. After that, Ecuador was devastated by an epidemic of smallpox, which was introduced by one of these Spaniards.

Emperor Huayna Capac died in 1527. According to legend, he was aware that the empire was too big to rule it from one center in Cusco. Immediately after his death, a dispute broke out for the throne between two of his five hundred sons - Huascar from Cuzco, the offspring of his legal wife, and Atahualpa from Ecuador. The feud between the blood brothers erupted into a five-year devastating civil war in which Atahualpa won a decisive victory just two weeks before Pizarro's second appearance in Peru. The winner and his 40,000th army rested in the provincial center of Cajamarca in the north-west of the country, from where Atahualpa was going to go to Cusco, where the official ceremony of his elevation to the imperial rank was to take place.

Pizarro arrived in Tumbes on May 13, 1532 and moved to Cajamarca with 110 foot and 67 horse soldiers. Atahualpa was aware of this from intelligence reports, on the one hand, accurate, on the other, biased in the interpretation of facts. So, the scouts assured that horses do not see in the dark, that a man and a horse are a single creature that, when falling, is no longer able to fight, that arquebuses emit only thunders, and even then only twice, that Spanish long steel swords are completely unsuitable for battle. A detachment of conquistadors on its way could be destroyed in any of the gorges of the Andes.

Having occupied Cajamarca, protected by walls on three sides, the Spaniards conveyed to the emperor an invitation to come to the city to meet with them. To this day no one can explain why Atahualpa let himself be drawn into a trap. He was well aware of the strength of the foreigners, and the favorite tactic of the Incas themselves was precisely the ambush. Perhaps the emperor was driven by some special motives beyond the understanding of the Spaniards. On the evening of November 16, 1532, Atahualpa appeared on Cajamarca Square in all the splendor of imperial regalia and accompanied by a large retinue - however, unarmed, as Pizarro demanded. After a short slurred conversation between the Inca demigod and the Christian priest, the Spaniards attacked the Indians and killed almost all of them in half an hour. During the massacre of the Spaniards, only Pizarro suffered, accidentally wounded in the arm by his own soldier, when he blocked Atahualpa, whom he wanted to capture alive and unharmed.

After that, with the exception of a few fierce skirmishes in different places, the Incas did not actually offer serious resistance to the conquerors until 1536. The captive Atahualpa agreed to buy his freedom by filling the room where he was kept twice with silver and once with gold. However, this did not save the emperor. The Spaniards accused him of conspiracy and "crimes against the Spanish state" and, after a short formal trial on August 29, 1533, strangled him with a garrote.

All these events plunged the Incas into a state of strange apathy. The Spaniards, almost without resistance, reached Cuzco along the great road and on November 15, 1533 took the city.

New Ink State.

Manco II.

Having made the former Inca capital of Cuzco the center of Spanish rule, Pizarro decided to give the new government a semblance of legitimacy and for this he appointed Huayn Capac's grandson Manco II as the emperor's successor. The new Inca had no real power and was subjected to constant humiliation by the Spaniards, but, nurturing plans for an uprising, showed patience.

In 1536, when part of the conquistadors, led by Diego Almagro, set off on an aggressive expedition to Chile, Manco, under the pretext of searching for imperial treasures, slipped out of the supervision of the Spaniards and raised an uprising. The moment for this was chosen favorable. Almagro and Pizarro, at the head of their supporters, started a dispute over the division of military spoils, which soon developed into an open war. By that time, the Indians had already felt the yoke of the new power and realized that they could only get rid of it by force.

Having destroyed all the Spaniards in the vicinity of Cuzco, four armies attacked the capital on April 18, 1536. The defense of the city was led by an experienced soldier Hernando Pizarro, brother of Francisco Pizarro. He had only 130 Spanish soldiers and 2000 Indian allies at his disposal, but he showed extraordinary military skill and withstood the siege. Simultaneously, the Incas attacked Lima, founded by Pizarro in 1535 and declared the new capital of Peru. Since the city was surrounded by flat terrain, the Spaniards successfully used cavalry and quickly defeated the Indians. Pizarro sent four detachments of conquistadors to help his brother, but they could not break through to the besieged Cusco. The three-month siege of Cusco was lifted due to the fact that many soldiers left the Inca army in connection with the start of agricultural work; besides, the army of Almagro, returning from Chile, was approaching the city.

Manco II and thousands of people loyal to him retreated to previously prepared positions in the Vilcabamba mountain range northeast of Cuzco. The Indians took with them the preserved mummies of the former Inca rulers. Here Manco II created the so-called. New Ink State. In order to protect the southern road from the military attacks of the Indians, Pizarro set up a military camp in Ayacucho. Meanwhile, a civil war continued between Pizarro's warriors and the "Chileans" of Almagro. In 1538 Almagro was captured and executed, and three years later his supporters killed Pizarro. The warring parties of the conquistadors were led by new leaders. In the battle of Chupas near Ayacucho (1542), Inca Manco helped the "Chileans", and when they were defeated, he sheltered six Spanish fugitives in his possessions. The Spaniards taught the Indians horseback riding, firearms, and blacksmithing. Arranging ambushes on the imperial road, the Indians obtained weapons, armor, money and were able to equip a small army.

During one of these raids, a copy of the "New Laws" adopted in 1544 fell into the hands of the Indians, with the help of which the king of Spain tried to limit the abuses of the conquistadors. After reviewing this document, Manco II sent one of his Spaniards, Gomez Perez, to negotiate with Viceroy Blasco Nunez Vela. Since the strife between the conquistadors continued, the viceroy was interested in a compromise. Soon after, the renegade Spaniards, who settled in the New Inca state, quarreled with Manco II, killed him and were executed.

Sayri Tupac and Titu Cusi Yupanqui.

The head of the New Inca state was the son of Manco II - Sayri Tupac. During his reign, the borders of the state expanded to the upper reaches of the Amazon, and the population increased to 80 thousand people. In addition to large herds of llamas and alpacas, the Indians raised a fair number of sheep, pigs, and cattle.

In 1555 Sayri Tupac launched military operations against the Spaniards. He moved his residence to the warmer climate of the Yucai Valley. Here he was poisoned by those close to him. Power was succeeded by his brother Titu Cusi Yupanqui, who resumed the war. All attempts by the conquistadors to subdue the independent Indians were in vain. In 1565, Fray Diego Rodriguez visited the Inca stronghold of Vilcabamba in order to lure the ruler out of hiding, but his mission was not successful. His reports on the morals of the royal court, the number and combat readiness of the soldiers give an idea of ​​the strength of the New Inca state. The following year, another missionary repeated the same attempt, but during the course of negotiations, Titu Cusi fell ill and died. A monk was blamed for his death and was executed. Subsequently, the Indians killed several more Spanish ambassadors.

Tupac Amaru, the last Supreme Inca.

After the death of Titu Cusi, another of the sons of Manco II came to power. The Spaniards decided to put an end to the citadel in Vilcabamba, made gaps in the walls and after a fierce battle took the fortress. Tupac Amaru and his commanders, chained with collars, were taken to Cusco. Here, in 1572, on the main city square, with a confluence of a large number of people, they were beheaded.

Spanish dominance.

The colonial authorities of Peru retained some of the administrative forms of the Inca empire, adapting them to their own needs. The colonial administration and the latifundists ruled the Indians through intermediaries - community elders "kurak" – and did not interfere in the daily life of householders. The Spanish authorities, like the Incas, practiced mass migrations of communities and a system of labor duties, and also formed a special class of servants and artisans from the Indians. Corrupt colonial authorities and greedy latifundists created intolerable conditions for the Indians and provoked numerous uprisings that took place throughout the colonial period.

Literature:

Bashilov V. Ancient Civilizations of Peru and Bolivia. M., 1972
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. History of the Inca state. L., 1974
Zubritsky Yu. Inca Quechua. M., 1975
Culture of Peru. M., 1975
Berezkin Yu. Mochica. L., 1983
Berezkin Yu. The Incas. The historical experience of the empire. L., 1991