Knowledge of certain principles easily compensates for ignorance of certain facts.

K. Helvetius

What is Air Navigation?

answer

The modern term "air navigation", considered in a narrow sense, has two interrelated meanings:

• a certain process or activity of people taking place in reality to achieve a specific goal;
  • Air navigation - control of the trajectory of the aircraft, carried out by the crew in flight. The air navigation process includes the solution of three main tasks:
    • formation (selection) of a given trajectory;
    • determining the location of the aircraft in space and the parameters of its movement;
    • formation of a navigation solution (control actions for bringing the aircraft to a given trajectory);
• science or academic discipline that studies this activity.
  • Air navigation as a science and academic discipline. Air navigation is an applied science of precise, reliable and safe driving of an aircraft from one point to another, methods of using technical means of navigation.

What are the best books on air navigation to start with?

answer

What devices provide air navigation processes in an aircraft?

answer

• The composition of the instruments may be different, depending on the type of aircraft and the era of its use. The totality of such devices is called the flight and navigation complex (PNK). Technical means of air navigation are divided into the following groups:
• Geotechnical tools. These are means, the principle of operation of which is based on the use of the physical fields of the Earth (magnetic, gravitational, atmospheric pressure fields), or the use of general physical laws and properties (for example, the properties of inertia). This largest and most ancient group includes barometric altimeters, magnetic and gyroscopic compasses, mechanical watches, inertial navigation systems (INS), etc.
• Radio equipment. Currently, they represent the largest and most important group of tools that are the main ones in modern air navigation for determining both the coordinates of the aircraft and the direction of its movement. They are based on the emission and reception of radio waves by airborne and ground radio engineering devices, measuring the parameters of the radio signal, which carries navigation information. These tools include radio compasses, RSBN, VOR, DME, DISS and others systems.
• Astronomical means. Methods for determining the location and course of the ship using celestial bodies (the Sun, Moon and stars) were used by Columbus and Magellan. With the advent of aviation, they were also transferred to air navigation practice, of course, using technical means specially designed for this - astrocompasses, sextants and orientators. However, the accuracy of astronomical aids was low, and the time required to determine navigation parameters with their help was quite large, therefore, with the advent of more accurate and convenient radio engineering aids, astronomical aids ended up beyond the standard equipment of civil aircraft, remaining only on aircraft flying in polar regions. areas.
• Lighting equipment. Once, at the dawn of aviation, light beacons, like sea beacons, were installed at airfields so that at night a pilot from afar could see him and go to the airfield. As flights became increasingly instrumental and in difficult weather conditions, this practice began to decline. Currently, lighting equipment is used mainly during landing approaches. Various systems of lighting equipment allow the crew to detect runway(Runway) and determine the position of the aircraft relative to it.

How to deal with altitude, pressure, QNE , QFE , QNH and more?

answer

• We read the article by Sergey Sumarokov "Altimeter 2992"

Where can I get an itinerary for making a flight plan?

answer

Routes are laid in the most optimal ways, while trying to provide the shortest routes between airports, and at the same time taking into account the need to bypass restricted areas (test airfields, air force flight areas, ranges, etc.). At the same time, the routes laid along the sections of these routes are, if possible, brought closer to orthodromic ones. Routes are listed in special collections, for example List of air routes of the Russian Federation. In the collections, the route is indicated by a list of sequentially listed waypoints. Radio beacons (VOR, NDB) or simply named points with fixed coordinates are used as waypoints. In a graphical representation, the routes are plotted on radio navigation charts (RNA).

A very convenient and visual site for planning routes skyvector.com

• If you want realism, you need to use ready-made routes. For example,
• Routes for the CIS on infogate.matfmc.ru
  • there is a similar, but slightly outdated base -
• Can be compiled independently according to RNA or Lists of Airways
• Skyvector.com is a very convenient interface for creating a route on your own or analyzing existing routes
• There are specialized sites for generating virtual routes, for example:
  • SimBrief site review
  • Display of ready routes on the map

• Check out these sites for more:

In general, the route looks like this: UUEE SID AR CORR2 BG R805 TU G723 RATIN UN869 VTB UL999 KURPI STAR UMMS

We remove the codes of airports of departure and arrival (Sheremetyevo, Minsk), the words SID and STAR denoting exit and entry schemes. It should also be noted that if there is no route between two points and this section runs directly (which is very common), it is indicated by the DCT sign.

AR CORR2 BG R805 TU G723 RATIN UN869 VTB UL999 KURPI, where AR, BG, TU, RATIN, VTB and KURPI are PPM. The paths used are marked between them.

What are approach patterns, Jeppessen, SID, STAR and how to use them?

answer

If you are going to take a certain level to the point of completion of the descent, then the vertical speed ( Vvert) is defined in terms of three variables:

• ground speed ( W);
• the height to be "lost" ( H);
• the distance over which the descent will be made.

How to learn how to use RSBN and NAS-1

answer

Problems with RSBN An-24RV Samdim

answer

Possible problems with RSBN for this aircraft are collected in the An-24 FAQ

Basic navigation parameters in English terminology

answer

• true north- North Pole, the vertical axis of sectional charts, meridians
• magnetic North- Magnetic Field, earth's magnetic lines of force affecting the compass.
• Variation- angular difference between true north and magnetic north. The angle may be to the east or west side of north. Eastern variation is subtracted from true north (Everywhere west of Chicago) and western variation (Everywhere east of Chicago) is added to obtain magnetic course. East is least and West is best: memory aid for whether to add or subtract variation. West of Chicago it is always subtracted.
• Isogonic lines- Magenta dashed lines on sectional showing variation. VOR roses have variation applied so that variation can be determined by measuring the angle of the North arrow on the rose from a vertical line.
• deviation- Compass error. A compass card in the airplane tells the amount of error to be applied to magnetic course to obtain compass course. Make a copy to keep at home for planning purposes.
• True Course- The line drawn on the map. Draw multiple lines with spaces //// from airport center to airport center. Multiple lines permit chart features to be read.
• Magnetic Course- True Course (TC) +/- variation = Magnetic Course. Put Magnetic Course on sectional for use while flying. This course determines hemispheric direction for correct altitude over 3000" AGL.
• Compass Course- Magnetic Course minus deviation gives Compass Course. The difference is usually only a few degrees.
• course- A route which has no wind correction applied
• heading- a route on which wind correction has been applied to a course.
• true heading- angular difference from true course, the line on the chart, caused by the calculated wind correction angle ( WCA).
• magnetic heading- angular difference from magnetic course caused by wind correction angle; also, obtained by applying variation to true heading.
• Compass heading- angular difference from compass course caused by wind correction angle; also, obtained by applying deviation to magnetic heading. If wind is AS computed, this is the direction you fly.
• true air speed- Indicated airspeed corrected for pressure, temperature, and instrument error. This is found in the aircraft manual. Cessna is overly optimistic in its figures.
• ground speed- actual speed over the ground. This is the speed on which you base your ETA's
• wind correction angle- angular correction in aircraft heading required to compensate for drift caused by wind. Correctly computed it will allow the aircraft to track the line drawn on the chart.
• Indicated altitude- Altimeter reading with Kollsman window set for local pressure and corrected for instrument error.
• pressure altitude- altimeter reading with Kollsman window set for 29.92. Used for density altitude and true airspeed computations.) Temperature is not used in determining pressure altitude.
• True Altitude- distance above datum plane of sea level
• Density Altitude- Pressure altitude corrected for temperature. This is the altitude that determines aircraft performance.

The simulator displays incorrectly... (day, night, time, moon, stars, road lighting)

• the change of night and day
  • to discuss the correct change of day, night, time ...

• • And if you want realism, never install any FS RealTime, TzFiles, etc. The simulator displays the movement of the stars and illumination according to real astronomical laws. For example,

• time
  • Realistic onboard clock. In particular, they do not spontaneously switch between time zones.
• moon phase change
  • RealMoon HD Realistic Moon Textures (FS2004 , FSX)
  • to the website
• starry sky
  • We read the article "Navigational Lights". At the end are links to help make a realistic look. starry sky in FS2004. This is done by replacing the stars.dat file.

Intensity = 230 NumStars = 400 Constellations = 0

• roads glow at night

We find our files in this path: Your Drive:\Your Sim Folder\Scenery\World\texture\

TOPIC № 1 Basics of air navigation.

1
Content
Introduction
1. Definition of navigation. Navigation tasks.
2. Classification of technical means of navigation.
3. The shape and size of the Earth. Main geographic
dots, lines and circles on the globe.
4. Units of measurement of distances.
5. Directions on the earth's surface.
6. The main lines of the path and position.
7. Geographic coordinates.
8. Coordinate systems used in aeronautical
navigation.
Conclusion.

Fundamentals of air navigation.

3
Air navigation is the science of safe, accurate and reliable
driving aircraft from one point on the earth's surface to
another.
Air navigation - aircraft trajectory control,
carried out by the crew in flight.
Air navigation is also understood as a set of actions
aircraft crew and employees of ground control services
air traffic aimed at ensuring safety,
the highest accuracy of flight performance on established routes
(routes) and arrival at the destination at the specified time.

Trajectory and track

Trajectory and track

Aircraft locus (ALS) is a point in
the space in which this moment time
the center of mass of the aircraft is located.
Aircraft position (MS) - projection of the PMS onto the ground
surface
The trajectory is the line described by the PMS as it moves.
Track line - the line described by the MS when it moves
(projection of the trajectory onto the earth's surface).
A predetermined path line (LZP) is a line along which
the MS must move in accordance with the flight plan
line of actual track (LFP) - along which it
actually moves in this flight.
4

Basic requirements for air navigation.

Air navigation safety is a basic requirement.
Accuracy. Air navigation accuracy is the degree
approximation of the actual trajectory to the given one. From
accuracy depends on both safety and economy
flight.
Profitability. The shorter the flight time, the less
cost, including all related
costs - from staff salaries to cost
spent fuel.
Regularity. Flights should generally
run on schedule. Departure delay or
arrival not only brings inconvenience to passengers,
but it can lead to the fact that the aircraft will be sent to the zone
waiting where it will wait to be released
temporary "window" for landing approach.
5

6.

4
Basic requirements for air crews (pilots)
ships:
Ensuring flight safety;
precise execution of the flight along the established route (route)
at a given altitude while maintaining such a flight mode, which
ensures the completion of the task;
defining the navigation elements required for
performing a flight along an established route or aviation
works (photography, aviation search, dropping cargo and
others);
ensuring the arrival of the aircraft in the area of ​​execution
aviation work, to the point or aerodrome of destination at the specified
time and execution of a safe landing;

The main tasks of air navigation.

formation (selection) of a given
trajectories.
determining the position of the aircraft in
space and its parameters
movement.
formation of a navigation solution
(control actions for output
aircraft for a given
trajectory.)
7

8.

5
To successfully solve these tasks, the crew with
must know with sufficient accuracy:
Where is the aircraft located at a given time;
In what direction and at what height is it necessary to perform
further flight;
at the same time, what speed must be maintained so that in the given
items arrive at the appointed time;
Only with this data the crew is able to control
aircraft movement.
To solve the problems of air navigation are used
technical means.

9.

6
Question 2. Classification of technical means of navigation.

10.

7
Classification of technical means
navigation
Technical means
navigation
Local
location
airborne
ground
The nature
use
autonomous
non-autonomous
10

11. Classification of technical means of navigation

navigation aids
radio engineering
geotechnical
satellite
astronomical
lighting
11

12.

9
Question 3. The shape and size of the Earth. Main
geographical points, lines and circles on the globe.

13. Models of the earth's surface.

The physical surface is the actual surface of the earth.
A level surface is a surface, at all points
perpendicular to the direction of gravity (plumb line).
A geoid is a figure formed by a level surface.
, coinciding with the surface of the World Ocean in a calm
condition.
Quasi-geoid - a surface that coincides with the geoid on
surface of the oceans and very close to it on land. This
surface and is called mean sea level.(MSL)
Ellipsoid is a mathematically correct body obtained by
rotation of the ellipse around the minor axis.
Sphere - This is an ellipsoid without compression (when high precision is not
required, then the Earth can be represented by a simpler figure)
Plane - the surface of the Earth is taken as a plane, that is
13
the curvature of the earth is not taken into account. (calculations are made on
restricted area)

14. Physical surface of the Earth

15. geoid and earth ellipsoid

11
geoid and earth ellipsoid
The height of the terrain is measured from the surface
quasigeoid. But practically it can be considered that
geoid surface, given the slight difference. On
plain 20 - 30 cm, in the mountains 2 - 3 meters.
1

16. Models of the earth's surface.

10
Geoid
figure,
limited
level
surface,
coinciding with the surface of the world ocean in a state
water balance. Level surface at each point
normal to the direction of gravity.
A quasi-geoid is a surface coinciding with a surface
geoid
above
seas
And
oceans
And
approximately
coinciding
above
land. (because
Not
known
distribution of masses inside the Earth)
An earth ellipsoid is a figure that represents
an oblate ellipsoid of revolution. Its dimensions are chosen
so that it is within certain territories
closest to the surface of the geoid.
Such an ellipsoid is called a reference ellipsoid.

17. Models of the earth's surface

Surface of the geoid and reference ellipsoid
12

18. Reference ellipsoid of Krasovsky

Characteristics of the reference ellipsoid
Krasovsky (SK-42):
semi-major axis (radius of the equator) a = 6 378 245 m;
semi-minor axis (distance from the equatorial plane to
poles) b = 6 356 863 m;
compression ratio c = 0.00335233
11

19.

12
Reference ellipsoid of Krasovsky

20.

13
Reference - ellipsoid ПЗ - 90 02
Characteristics of the reference ellipsoid
PZ-90 02
semi-major axis (radius of the equator) a = 6 378 136 m;
ellipsoid compression ratio c = 0.0033528;
ellipsoid center
coordinate systems.
combined
With
start
geocentric

21. Characteristics of WGS-84

14
Characteristics of WGS-84
Characteristics of the WGS-84 spheroid:
equatorial radius a = 6 378 137 m;
polar radius b = 6 356 752.314245 m;
maximum spheroid divergence
geoid is no more than 200 m.
WGS-84
ICAO has decided, effective 1 January 1998, to publish in
aeronautical information documents coordinates
points in a single coordinate system for the whole world,
called WGS-84 (World Geodetic System).
.
With

22.WGS-84

15
WGS-84
three-dimensional
system
coordinates
For
positioning on earth. Unlike local systems,
is
unified
system
For
all
planets.
The forerunners of WGS-84 were the WG-72, WGS-64 and
WGS-60.
WGS-84 defines coordinates relative to the center
Earth masses, the error is less than 2 cm. In WGS-84,
The prime meridian is the IERS Reference Meridian.
It is located 5.31" east of Greenwich
meridian.

23. Basic geographic points, lines and circles.

Main geographic points, lines
and circles on the globe
16

24. Measurement of directions and distances on the surface of the Earth.

17
Measurement of directions and distances on the surface
Earth.
When solving many navigation problems that do not require
high accuracy, the Earth is taken as a ball with a radius R = 6371
km. With this tolerance, the maximum errors in determining the lengths
can be 0.5% and in determining the direction of 12 ".
Knowing the radius of the Earth, you can calculate the length of the great circle
(meridian and equator);
L \u003d 2pR \u003d 2 x 3.14 x 6371 \u003d 40030 ≈ 40000 km.
By determining the length of the great circle, you can find the length of the arc
meridian (equator) in 1 ° or in 1 ":
1° arc of the meridian (equator) = L/360°= 111.2 km,
1 "arc of the meridian (equator) 111/60" = 1.853 km.
seconds - about 31 m.
The length of each parallel is less than the length of the equator and depends on
latitude of the place φ.
It is equal to L pairs \u003d L equiv cosφ pairs.

25. Conversion of distance units.

Distance unit ratios:
1 MM (NM) = 1! meridian arcs = 1852 m = 1.852 km;
1 AM (SM) = 1.6 km;
1 foot (ft) = 30.48 cm;
1 m = 3.28 ft.
Converting one distance unit to another
produced according to the formulas:
S km \u003d S MM x 1.852;
S MM = S km / 1.852;
S km \u003d S AM x 1.6;
S AM = S km / 1.6;
H ft = N m x 3.28;
H m = H ft / 3.28.
19

26. Coordinate systems on the earth's surface.

Spherical coordinate system
Geodetic coordinate system
26

27. Rectangular coordinate systems.

Rectangular coordinate systems are the usual Cartesian
systems having three perpendicular axes (X, Y, Z). They
used to describe the position of points in space,
on the surface or inside the earth.
RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
Geocentric
Topocentric
Reference
Reference Rectangular Systems - Coordinate Center
is at the center of the ellipsoid
27

28. Rectangular coordinate systems

29. Geodetic coordinates.

30. Geodetic coordinates

Geodetic latitude B is the angle enclosed between
the equatorial plane and the normal to the surface
ellipsoid at that point. Counted from 0 to 90
degrees north (northern latitude) and south (southern
latitude)
Geodetic longitude L is the dihedral angle between

points. Measured from 0 to 180 degrees east
(east longitude) and west (west longitude)
Geodetic height Hg - distance from the point
observer to the surface of the ellipse. She
is measured from the surface of the ellipsoid along the normal to
her. Currently, Ng on board the aircraft may be
determined only by satellite
navigation systems.
30

31. Geodetic height.

Orthometric height Hort is measured from the level
geoid in the direction of the plumb line.
Excess N of the geoid above the surface of the ellipsoid in
this point is called the geoid wave
Geodetic height Hg
31

32. Spherical coordinates

33. Spherical coordinates

Spherical latitude φ is the angle between the plane
equator and the direction from the center of the sphere to the given
point.
Spherical longitude λ is the dihedral angle between
the planes of the initial meridian and the meridian of the given
points.
Meridian - a large circle, the plane of which passes
through the Earth's axis of rotation.
Parallel is an arc of a small circle, the plane of which
perpendicular to the Earth's axis of rotation and, therefore,
parallel to the equator.
The equator is a great circle whose plane
33
perpendicular to the Earth's axis of rotation.

34. Determination of latitude and longitude on the map.

35. TOPIC № 1 Basics of air navigation

36. Azimuth (bearing) of the landmark.

21
azimuth,
or
bearing
landmark (Azimuth, Bearing)
is called the angle enclosed
between northbound
meridian passing through
given point, and the direction
on
observable
reference point.
Azimuth
(bearing)
landmark
counted down
from
northern
directions
meridian
before
directions to landmark
clockwise from 0 to 360°.

37. Set track angle and line of the set track.

22
In preparation for the flight, the given
waypoints connect to
map
line,
which
V
piloting
called
predetermined path line (LZP)
(Desired track, DTK). .
Target Track Angle (ZPU)
is called the angle enclosed
between northbound
meridian and the line of the given
way.
He
counted down
from
northern
directions
meridian to line direction
given
way
By
hourly
arrow from 0° to 360°.

38.

23
Question 6. The main lines on the surface of the globe

39. Line of way and line of position.

24
The path line of an aircraft is a projection onto the ground.
the surface of the trajectory of its movement in space. At present
time, mainly two lines of track are used: the orthodrome and
loxodrome.
The line of position is the locus of points
probable
location
plane,
corresponding
constant value of the measured navigation parameter. IN
Aircraft navigation uses the following main lines
provisions:
orthodromic bearing line;
line of equal azimuths (radio bearings);
line of equal distances;

40. Circle line.

25
Orthodromia - a great circle arc, which is the shortest
the distance between two points on the surface of the earth.
The orthodrome crosses the meridians at various angles. IN
in a particular case, it can coincide with the meridian and the equator

41. Circle line.

42. The main properties of the great circle.

26
Orthodromy:
is the line of shortest distance between points on
the surface of the globe;
crosses the meridians under different unequal
angles due to convergence of meridians at the poles;
on flight charts the great circle between two points,
located at a distance of up to 1000 - 1200 km, is laid
straight line. In this case, the track angle and path length along
great circles are measured on the map. Over long distances
the orthodrome is laid by a curved line facing the bulge
to the pole. In this case, the track angle and track length are calculated from
special formulas.

43. Loxodrome

loxodromia
line
on
surfaces
earthly
crossing the meridians at the same track angle.
27
ball,

44. Loxodromia

45. Basic properties of loxodrome.

28
On the surface of the globe, the loxodrome has the form
spatial logarithmic spiral that goes around
the globe an infinite number of times and with each revolution gradually
approaches the pole, but never reaches it.
Loxodromia has the following properties:
crosses the meridians at a constant angle and on the surface
The globe with its bulge is turned towards the equator;
- the path along the loxodrome is always longer than the path along the orthodrome, for
with the exception of special cases when the flight takes place on
meridian or equator.

46. ​​Line of equal azimuths.

29
Line of equal azimuths (line of equal radio bearings) a line, at each point of which there is a radio navigation point (RNT)
bearing under the same true bearing of the radio station
(YPRES). A line of equal azimuth as a line of position
used when measuring the bearing of a radio station using
radio compass.

47. Lines of position.

30
A line of equal distances is a line all points of which
are at the same distance from some fixed
points. On the surface of the globe, a line of equal distances
represents the circumference of a small circle. as a line
position, the line of equal distances is used when
distance measurement using rangefinder and goniometric rangefinding systems.
Line of equal distance differences - a line, in each
point of which the difference of distances to two fixed points
on the earth's surface (radio stations) is a constant
size. Finds use in positioning
with the help of differential-range navigation systems.

48.

31
Question 6. Geographical coordinates

49. Geographic coordinates.

32
Geographic
coordinates
This
corner
quantities,
specifying the position of any given point on a surface
earth ellipsoid. Reference planes in this system
are the planes of the prime meridian and equator, and
the coordinates of the angular quantities are latitude and longitude.
The parallel passing through the center of the ellipsoid is called
equator.
IN
quality
elementary
accepted
Greenwich
meridian (meridian passing through the center of the main center
Greenwich Abservatory)
Geographic
coordinates
received
V
result
geodetic measurements are called - geodetic.

50. Geographic latitude.

33
geographical
latitude
(Latitude) is called the angle between
the plane of the equator and the normal to
ellipsoid surface in a given
point (M).
Latitude is measured from the plane
equator to the poles from 0 to 90° to
north or south.
Northern
latitude
counts
positive
southern
negative.
All points on the same
parallels,
have
the same
latitude.

51. Geographic longitude.

34
Geographic longitude λ
(Longitude)
called
dihedral angle between plane
elementary
meridian
And
plane
meridian
given
points
(M),
or
length
arcs
equator expressed in degrees
between prime meridian and
meridian of this point.
Longitude
measured
V
degrees.
Countdown
ongoing
from
prime meridian to the east and
west from 0 to 180°. Eastern
longitude is considered positive,
western
counts
negative.
All points on the same
meridians have the same
longitude.

With
spherical
37
latitude
called
corner,
a prisoner
between
plane
equator
And
direction to this point
from
center
terrestrial
spheres.
spherical
latitude
measured by central angle
or an arc of a meridian in the same
within,
What
And
latitude
geographical.
prisoners
between
plane
elementary
meridian
And
plane
meridian of that point. She
measured in the same range
what and geographical longitude.

57. Geodetic coordinate system.

39
Geographic
system
coordinates
is
private
spherical case. For the main
planes in this system are accepted
plane
geographical
equator and the plane of the initial
meridian. Geographic system
coordinates in the form of meridians and
parallels
applied
on
All
navigation charts and is
basic
For
definitions
coordinates of points on maps.

58. Orthodromic coordinate system.

40
orthodromic
system
coordinates
is
Also
spherical
system,
But
With
arbitrary
location
poles.
She
applied
V
quality
basic
systems
coordinates
V
automatic
navigational
devices,
which determine the coordinates
aircraft seats

59.

41
In this system, for the main axes
coordinates
accepted
two
great circle, which determined it
Name.
orthodromy,
aligned with the given line
path or with the axis of the route,
called main and accepted
for the Y axis. It is, as it were,
conditional
equator.
Other
great circle,
perpendicular
main, is drawn through the point
start
reference
coordinates
And
accepted
behind
axis
x.
This
great circle is
conditional meridian.

60. General orthodromic coordinate system.

44
Rectangular
system
coordinates
applied
For
programming
automated access to
landing. In this case start
coordinates are aligned with the center
runway, and the y-axis with the direction
landing. For main points
scheme
sunset
in advance
define
rectangular
coordinates,
allowing
produce
automated entry to
landing

63. Polar coordinate system.

45
Polar
system
coordinates is flat
system.
In this system, the position
points
V
space
determined
two
values:
azimuth (A);
horizontal
range (D) relative to
radio navigation point or
a certain landmark
The polar coordinate system is applied when using
goniometer-rangefinding radio navigation systems.

Air navigation

Lecture number 2. Information about the shape and size of the Earth…………………………………7

Lecture number 3. Determination of the relative coordinates of the aircraft……………………...16

Lecture number 4. Navigation preparation for flight………………………………..22

Lecture number 5. General rules of air navigation……………………………25

Lecture number 6. Ensuring flight safety in navigation terms. Requirements for the content of navigation software

flights……………………………………………………………..29

Lecture number 7. Application of course systems…………………………………….37

Lecture number 8. Visual orientation……………………………………………41

Lecture number 9. Application of a Doppler ground speed and drift angle meter. Navigation characteristics of DISS, the principle of measuring ground speed, drift angle using DISS. Heading-Doppler measurement of aircraft coordinates, heading-Doppler navigation complex……………………………………………47

Lecture number 10. Non-autonomous navigation systems………………………………51

Lecture number 11. Rangefinder radio navigation systems…………………..59

Lecture number 12. Application of goniometer-rangefinder navigation systems65

Lecture number 13. The use of a radar station in flight……………..69

Lecture number 14. Satellite radio navigation systems………………………….75

List of used literature………………………………………………..79

Lecture number 1.

Basic navigation concepts and definitions

"Air navigation" is the science of flying aircraft along a program trajectory.

Flight is the complex movement of an aircraft in the air. It can be decomposed into translational motion of the center of mass and angular motion around the center of mass. When describing the position of the aircraft in the process of its translational motion, a series of points and lines is used. They serve as the basis for maintaining navigation concepts directly related to the movement of the center of mass of the aircraft. These include: aircraft position(PMS), aircraft seat(MS) flight path(TP), track line(LP).

Airplane spatial location- the point in space where the center of mass of the aircraft is currently located.

Airplane location- a point on the earth's surface, to which the center of mass of the aircraft is currently being projected. The spatial position of the aircraft and the position of the aircraft can be given and actual.

Flight path- a spatial line described by the center of mass of the aircraft during movement. It can be given, required and actual. Under space-time trajectory flight understand the flight path, given not only in space, but also in time. A given space-time trajectory is called a program trajectory.

track line is the projection of the aircraft's flight path onto the Earth's surface. The projection of the program flight trajectory onto the Earth's surface is called the predetermined path line (LZP). The line that the aircraft must fly is called the flight route.

flight profile- is called the projection of the program trajectory on a vertical plane drawn through the deployed flight path in a straight line. The projection onto the earth's surface of the actual flight path of the aircraft is called the actual track line (LFP). Along the routes, BT and MVP are installed, which are corridors limited in height and width in airspace.

WT- a corridor in the airspace, limited in height and width, intended for flights by aircraft of all departments, provided with route airfields and equipped with radio navigation, air traffic control and control facilities.

profit center- a corridor in the airspace, limited in height and width and intended for flights by aircraft in the implementation of local air services.

When solving a number of navigation problems, several coordinate systems can be used. In the general case, their choice and application depend on the nature of the technical means of navigation and the capabilities of computing devices. The position of the MPS and MS in any system is determined by coordinates, which are determined by linear or angular quantities. In navigation, the most commonly used geocentric systems include: geographical(astronomical and geodetic), normal spherical, orthodromic And equatorial.

As the main geographic systems are used: rectangular right systems coordinates (normal earth and starting), bipolar(flat and spherical), hyperbolic And horizontal.

When projecting the physical surface of the Earth onto the surface of the geoid, an astronomical coordinate system is used. The coordinates of the place of the aircraft in this system are:

Geographic coordinate system:

• 
  geographical latitude g - dihedral angle enclosed between the plane of the equator and the normal (plumb line) to the surface of the ellipsoid (geoid) at a given point M (measured from the equator to the poles from 0 o to 90 o);
• 
  geographical longitude  g - dihedral angle enclosed between the planes of the initial (Greenwich) meridian and the meridian of a given point M. It is measured from 0 o to 180 o to the east and west (when solving some problems from 0 o to 360 o to the east).

Normal coordinate system:

• 
  normal spherical latitude  - the angle between the equatorial plane and the direction from the center of the globe to a point that is the image of the corresponding point on the ellipsoid. It is measured by the central angle or arc of the meridian within the same limits. What is geographic latitude;
• 
  normal spherical longitude  is the dihedral angle between the plane of the initial (Greenwich meridian) and the plane of the meridian of a given point. It is measured either by the central angle in the plane of the equator or by the arc of the equator from the initial meridian to the meridian of a given point within the same limits as geographic longitude.

The physical state of the air environment, as well as the direction of its movement relative to the earth's surface, have a significant impact on the trajectory of the aircraft in any coordinate system. To assess the movement of the aircraft along the trajectory, geometric and mechanical quantities are used that characterize the spatial position of the aircraft, the speed and direction of its movement at some point in time. They are usually called navigation elements of flight and are divided into navigation elements and movements.

Flight altitude is the vertical distance from a certain level, taken from the reference point, to the aircraft.

The elements of the second group are: ground speed, ground angle, drift angle, airspeed, heading and vertical speed.

Airspeed aircraft are determined both relative to the air surrounding the aircraft and relative to the earth's surface.

Aircraft headingγ - is called the angle in the horizontal plane m
direction taken as the origin 1 at the aircraft location point, and the projection onto this plane of its longitudinal axis 2 (Fig. 1.7).

ground speed flight is the speed of movement on the earth's surface MS, directed tangentially to the track line 2 .

track angle called the angle between the direction taken as the origin and the track line (vector ground speed W). He, like the course, reports from the origin in a clockwise direction from 0 o to 360 o.

Drift angle - aircraft is called the angle between the airspeed vector and the ground speed vector in the horizontal plane. It is considered positive if the ground speed vector is located to the right of the airspeed vector, negative - if it is to the left.

vertical speed W in is called the vertical component of the vector of the total speed of the translational movement of the aircraft relative to the Earth W (Fig. 1.7).

The flight navigation elements discussed above can be given, actual and required. For example, actual track lines are actual track, target track lines are target track, and required track lines are desired track.

The setting of the navigation problem is based on the determination of the programmed, actual and required values ​​of navigation and flight parameters relative to the air environment and the earth's surface, characterizing the corresponding flight trajectories.

The flight of any purpose is preceded by the calculation of the program trajectory and the preparation (development) of a given navigation flight program, the calculated program trajectory, which ensures the safest and most economic flight, can be specified analytically or graphically in various coordinate systems. Analytically, it is expressed by the finite equations of motion of the center of mass of the aircraft, which in the widely used orthodromic rectangular coordinate system have the form:

(1.9)

where Z z, S z, H z are the given (program) orthodromic rectangular coordinates of the PMS at a given moment of time T.

To indicate the program flight trajectory, the crew is given the flight route, the flight time of its strong points, as well as the flight profile. The navigation program developed on the basis of the program trajectory, depending on the capabilities of the technical means of navigation and piloting, can be entered into the storage devices of navigation computers and presented on navigation situation indicators, automatic charting tablets, flight charts, flight logs and flight plans. Flight along the program trajectory according to the navigation program must be carried out in accordance with the flight manual. They regulate the rules, conditions and restrictions on flight operation and piloting of an aircraft of this type.

The nature of the trajectory is determined by the flight modes of the aircraft. The latter, in turn, are characterized by various navigational and flight parameters, which are understood as mechanical and geometric quantities and their derivatives used in aircraft navigation.

Navigation and flight parameters may coincide with flight navigation elements or be related to them by simple relationships. Navigation parameters include: the coordinates of the spatial location of the aircraft, ground speed, ground angle, drift angle, vertical speed, derivatives of these parameters, and others.

TO aerobatic include: airspeed, aircraft heading, vertical speed relative to the air, angular velocity, yaw, roll, pitch angles, etc. According to this division of the parameters used in the ALS, navigation and flight modes of flight are distinguished.

Control questions

1. 
   What is the subject of air navigation?
2. 
   What is the flight path?
3. 
   What geodetic coordinate systems are most commonly used in navigation?
4. 
   What determines the nature of the flight path?

Keywords:

Air navigation, PMS, MS, TP, LP, flight profile, VT, MVL, astronomical coordinate system, geodetic coordinate system

geographic coordinate system, normal coordinate system, flight altitude, aircraft heading, ground speed, ground angle, drift angle.

Along a given space-time trajectory.

Air navigation tasks

• • coordinates (geographic --> latitude, longitude; polar --> azimuth, range)
  • height (absolute, relative, true)
  • height above the Earth's surface (true flight altitude)
  • well
  • track angle (conditional, true, magnetic, orthodromic)
  • indicated, true, ground speed
  • speed, direction (meteorological, navigational) and wind angle
  • predetermined track line (LZP)
  • linear lateral deviation (LBU)
  • additional correction (DP) (when flying to a radio station)
  • lateral deviation (BU) (when flying from a radio station)
  • reverse, direct bearing (OP, PP) (when flying to / from the radio direction finder)
• Control and correction of the path: (With access to LZP or to PPM (turning point of the route), depending on the LBU and CWT)
  • by range
  • towards
• Laying and dead reckoning:
  • Straight
  • Reverse
  • calm
• Building optimal routes to reach the destination
  • access to the point in the minimum time
  • exit to point minimal cost fuel
  • exit to the point at the specified time
• Operational route correction during the flight
  • when changing the flight task, including in case of malfunctions in the aircraft
  • in the event of adverse meteorological phenomena on the route
  • to avoid collision with another aircraft
  • for rendezvous with another aircraft

Definition of aircraft navigation elements

Various technical means are used to define navigation elements:

• Geotechnical- allow you to determine the absolute and relative altitude of the flight, the course of the aircraft, its location, and so on).
  • air and ground speed meters,
  • magnetic and gyromagnetic compasses, gyro semi-compasses,
  • optical viewfinders,
  • inertial navigation systems and so on.

• Radio engineering- allow you to determine the true height, ground speed, location of the aircraft by measuring various parameters of the electromagnetic field by radio signals.
  • radio navigation systems and so on.

• Astronomical- allow you to determine the course and location of the aircraft
  • astronomical compasses
  • astroorientators and so on

• Lighting- ensure the landing of the aircraft in difficult meteorological conditions and at night and to facilitate orientation.
  • beacons.

• Integrated navigation systems- autopilot - can provide automatic flight along the entire route and landing approach in the absence of visibility of the earth's surface.

Sources

• Cherny M. A., Korablin V. I. Self-driving, Transport, 1973, 368 p. broken link

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

• space navigation
• inertial navigation

See what "Air Navigation" is in other dictionaries:

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