Ireland is a single concept, although there is an independent Republic of Ireland (Eire) and Northern Ireland, which is part of the UK. The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy headed by a president. Northern Ireland has had its own assembly with legislative power since 1998. The official language of the Republic of Ireland is Gaelic followed by English. Northern Ireland- official English only. Despite the lack of unity, the Irish of both territories consider themselves a single nation.

island of saints

The first population came to Ireland around 10-8 thousand years BC. Of course, these were tribes from Great Britain. In the IV century BC. a new wave of population came either from Great Britain or from the Continent, of which there are many monuments, megalithic pottery decorative products, which are now and then found in villages throughout Ireland. The first Celts landed in Ireland in the Iron Age, that is, around the 5th century BC, and gradually settled the whole country. From them remains to this day the Gaelic language and the division of the island into four provinces, Munster in the southwest, Connaught in the west, Ulster in the north and Leinster in the east, which are nothing more than a division of large Celtic tribes. Since that era, Ireland has retained traces of major political and religious centers such as Tara.

At that time, active trade began to develop with Britain, already romanized. Armed Romance tribes never came to Ireland. Saint Patrick, the most beloved saint in Ireland, celebrated by Irish people all over the world, was a former slave, but became a missionary, and it was he who brought Christianity to Ireland in the same 5th century. This is a legend, which, of course, has some truth. At this time, many monasteries were formed in Ireland, which became centers of knowledge, science and arts. Then a golden age began for Ireland, the culture of this country illuminated other countries of Europe. Irish monks such as St. Brendan or St. Columbus, founded abbeys on the continent (in Lani, Luxey in France, for example).

At that time, Ireland was divided into numerous warring tribes and remained politically fragmented. The Vikings took advantage of this and landed on the island at the end of the 8th century. It was they who once founded the cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick. At the beginning of the 9th century, King Brian Borah unified Ireland and won a historic victory over the Vikings in April 1014. He is the most revered king in the country. In 1166, the Viking king from Leicester, calling on the help of the English king Henry II, again conquered the country. However, the British quickly seized control of the territory, and Henry II himself landed on the island in 1171. Divided into estates, Ireland was annexed to the possessions of the English crown. English settlers settle on the island and found the cities of Drodhela, Dundalk, Sligo. Indigenous resistance was sporadic until 1258, when the Irish kings recognized one of the kings, Brian O'Neill, as High King of Ireland. and traditions are still alive in Ireland In 1541, Ireland was granted the status of a kingdom by King Henry III in order to strengthen the power of the English crown on the island.

To church like a pub

As for religion, the native Irish remained attached to Catholicism, while the British tried to impose Protestant reform on Ireland. Thus, the religious conflict that has become a bloody problem in Great Britain dates back to the 16th century. During the English bourgeois revolution, after a republic was established in England, Oliver Cromwell landed on the island to establish his influence here too. The Catholics were thrown back to the west of Shannon, all the lands of the north were in the hands of the Protestants. In Ireland, laws were passed against Catholics - a ban on the education of children, the carrying of weapons, possession, inheritance, agricultural work, trade, free professions, and the lack of the right to vote. Only a century later, in 1778-1792, most of these laws were repealed. There remained a law forbidding Catholics to sit in Parliament.

In the second half of the 19th century, a wave of nationalism rose in Ireland. Only on the eve of the First World War, England granted Ireland the status of autonomy within the United Kingdom, which had been requested for thirty years by the liberals of Ireland. Despite this concession, nationalist protests continue. The radical nationalist party "Sinn Fein" won the elections in 1918 in all of Ireland, except for Ulster. This was followed by two years of ruthless fighting, and only in 1921 the Anglo-Irish agreement gave 26 counties of the south the status of dominion. In 1949, the Republic of Ireland was proclaimed, leaving the Commonwealth. Gaelic was declared the official language. The Republic of Ireland has been part of the European Community since 1973.

The inhabitants of the Republic of Ireland are considered among the most zealous Catholics. However, they were also affected by de-Christinization, like most of Europe. The Irish are less likely to go to Mass, and mixed marriages between Catholics and Protestants are increasingly common. Interestingly, 22% of Irish people think it's important to go to church, but 35% think it's just as important to go to a pub at least once a week. Actually, here you can plunge into the life of a real Irishman - you can listen to music, play billiards, read a newspaper, talk about politics, watch a rugby match...

The birthplace of real whiskey?

As for the language, the Irish speak Gaelic, but not all and not too well. However, tourists will notice that the inscriptions in Ireland are found in two languages. However, everyone speaks English and you will not be spoken to in Gali. You don't hear the Parliament, the Prime Minister, the government, the police being called in English in Ireland. This is a kind of self-determination. But since for many centuries the elite, and then the simple strata of the population, gradually got used to and accepted English language, today Ireland cannot refuse it. In 1922, when Ireland won its independence, almost no one spoke Gaelic, but it was declared official language, his education became compulsory in schools. The learning process was difficult because the alphabet was not similar to English. Only in 1960 was the Latin alphabet adopted. There are different dialects of Gaelic in different parts of Ireland. Irish ministers speak English, including the minister of culture, who nonetheless promotes the development of the national language through the establishment of many programs and projects.

The Scots make "whisky" and the Irish make "whiskey". For an ordinary person, there is no difference. In fact, Scotch whiskey differs from Irish whiskey in the distillation number. Connoisseurs and connoisseurs say that Irish whiskey is softer, more subtle and pleasant. For them, there is also no doubt that the birthplace of whiskey is Ireland. Every Irishman will tell you so. According to legend, the invention of whiskey dates back to the time of the Druids, who used to prepare a magical drink, the so-called "water of life", which alleviated the heartache of the Irish hero Kushleinn. Other legends say that in the 5th century, St. Patrick brought a certain device from the Holy Land, with the help of which it was possible to obtain an extremely pure drink by heating certain liquids. Thus the method of distillation was born. Saint Patrick gave the alleged distillation apparatus to the monks, who prepared barley beer from the purest water and barley. They began to use the machine and got whiskey. Over the centuries, small distillers became very popular in Ireland, with every farm having its own distillation apparatus. Only in the 18th century Irish whiskey received official recognition, then John Jameson in Dublin created the first distillation production in the country. Today, lovers of this drink, in particular the most famous whiskey James Jameson, make a pilgrimage to two places in Ireland - the Bowstreet quarter in Dublin, where the Jameson distillery is located, which has become a whiskey museum, and Middleton in County Cork, where visitors can see one of the oldest distilleries, which became the world's only "conservatory" of whiskey.

You can travel around Ireland all year round, but it is better to avoid the influx of tourists, come here in spring or autumn. The air temperature fluctuates between 14°C and 16°C, which, however, does not prevent you from fully enjoying the magnificent landscapes, ancient estates and abbeys. In addition, at this time there are many cultural events. For example, from June to the end of September in Monkstown, in County Dublin, evenings of traditional Irish music are held every evening. From October 27 to 30, the great masters of Irish and world jazz gather in Cork, official concerts are held in the halls and improvised on the streets of the city.

Megaliths and landscapes

In July, the Galway Arts Festival lasts for two weeks, there are film screenings, theatrical performances, music and dance concerts, and literary evenings. From May to the end of July in Wicklow, one of the most beautiful corners of Ireland, a garden festival opens - whole gardens of roses, magnificent fountains, surrounded by fantastic flower beds. For nature lovers, Mount Usher Gardens offers to see a real Eden with a thousand species of plants planted along the banks of a small river with suspension bridges. The National Garden Center in Kilkwad presents 20 types of gardens from the simplest to the most sophisticated.

To name a few perfect unique places in Ireland, which you should definitely visit - Croagh Patrick, ten kilometers from Westport. This sacred mountain Ireland. According to legend, Saint Patrick spent 40 days and 40 nights praying on its gray stones without food or water. He allegedly died there, but his soul still hovers in those parts to this day. Tribute to him is offered by barefoot wanderers from different parts of the country on the last Sunday of July. According to legend, in Glendapough, 50 km south of Dublin, called the Valley of the Lakes, St. Kevin founded one of the first Christian churches in Ireland in 570. The cathedral with a tower and a large 3.5-meter cross testifies to the piety in which many generations of this town were brought up. Despite the influence of time, the conquests of the Vikings, the destruction did not affect this unique monument. The city itself retains the atmosphere of epic times, especially in autumn, when the yellowed trees are reflected in the two surrounding lakes.

Rock of Cashel is located 160 km southwest of Dublin, which offers a breathtaking view - villages, hills, green fields. In the 5th century, the Irish kings chose this place for their coronation. In the XIII century, a cathedral was built here, from which only ruins and a round tower 30 meters high remained. This corner is shrouded in legends. The most famous one says that in 450 here Saint Patrick unsuccessfully stuck a cross right in the foot of the young Irish king. He thought it was a rite of passage and silently endured the pain. Other interesting place- Inishmore Island. Landing on it, you will discover wild landscapes and ancient Christian settlements. In the western part of the island you will find a small chapel from the 9th-12th centuries, preserved in its original state. If you walk around the island at night, you will be surprised by the statues of the Immaculate Virgin on the rocks, illuminated by the brilliance of many candles.

Excursions around the cities of Ireland are interesting, but we advise you to get away from the noise and civilization and take non-traditional, but very exciting walks - on foot, along the rivers on a boat or on a horse. Then you will feel that you are in an archaeological and historical museum under open sky. To the north of Dublin in Knowth you can see the tombs of the Mesolithic era (3200 BC) - burial mounds, the entrance to which, thanks to archaeological excavations, has been open to visitors for two years.

8 km from Limerick in Low Gur you will find archaeological sites, dolmens, stone circles shrouded in mist, here small houses around the lake, a quiet but mysterious atmosphere. Also, 8 km from Dublin Wicklow way, the landscapes are very wild and untouched - winding rivers that arose during the ice age, granite mountains. North of Ulster, you can take a walk in Giant's Causeway, i.e. along the Giants' Road. Basalt columns in the form of polygons (there are 37,000 of them, each about 10 meters high), once emerging from the sea, make the landscape look like a moon The columns are so close to each other that they seem to be glued together and they stand so evenly and accurately that one might think that they were built by a man. sheer cliffs are like an amphitheatre. It is best to look at the columns from afar, from the ruins of Dunluce Castle, abandoned by the owners in the 17th century. The road of the giants leads to the port of Spaniacoh, this bay overlooking the ocean seems extreme point earth. This place is famous for the fact that long before the Titanic, in 1588, the Spanish ship Girona crashed here with 1300 people on board. They were wealthy seniors traveling with their families. Their treasures still lie on the seabed, only a part has been discovered and exhibited in museums in Belfast and Ulster. Most of it was swallowed up by the abyss forever.

Fishing enthusiasts in Ireland are also welcome beautiful places. It is best to charter a boat and sail the Shannon River, the longest and widest in all of the UK (350 km long). This is how you discover central Ireland. There are more than one eel to be caught in Lough Neagh. Shannon has linked the north, south, east and west of the island since ancient times. The coastal landscape is diverse - lakes, forests, ancient castles, temples and monasteries. You will sail through the entire history of the island - Birr Castle with its gardens immersed in magnolias, apple trees and cherries, Clonfert with its cathedral founded in the VI century by St. Brendan, a true masterpiece of Romanesque art, the ruins of the church in Kilconnel, the Athlone, changed hands countless times by the English and Irish, the cathedral at Clonmacnoise, one of the largest ancient monastic settlements in Ireland, founded in the 6th century. The quiet backwaters along the banks of the Shannon River are home to rare bird species.

Western Europe- a region that includes in its composition in the main state of the Germans and the Celts. One of the most developed economic regions planets. The beginning of the formation Western Europe considered the collapse of the Roman Empire, dividing it into Eastern and Western.

List of Western European countries: Austria, Belgium, Andorra, Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Switzerland and France. The last noticeable changes in the map of Western Europe took place around the 11th century; it is not for nothing that this part is considered the "old world". The states of Western Europe are divided into four groups (large, medium, small and dwarf states).

About 296 million people live in Western Europe. And of these, approximately 20 million foreign workers, Western Europe is a kind of immigration hotbed of the world. The population of Western Europe belongs to the Indo-European language family, Romance and Germanic group.

The most big country in Western Europe - France, its area is 549.2 thousand km2, while it is also the richest and oldest country in this part of Europe.

Western Europe is a region that ranks first in terms of small-scale economic and industrial production, export of goods, reserves of gold and currency, development international tourism. A distinctive feature of Western Europe is considered high level development of integration processes. The development of Western Europe as a region is determined by the contribution of all countries in the region, but mainly the most developed - France, Germany, and Great Britain.

The cultural heritage of Western Europe, it is the world's treasure trove of extraordinarily beautiful and famous works of art. In the history of Western Culture, one can trace many cultural events that have remained in the memory of the whole world, as well as thousands of names of famous artists, musicians, sculptors associated with the countries of Western Europe.

To the most the most beautiful cities Western Europe include: Paris, Amsterdam, London. Every year they attract millions of curious tourists. Tourist incomes of Western countries fill a large niche in the country's budget.

Europe is named after the heroine of the ancient Greek mythology of Europe, the Phoenician princess, kidnapped by Zeus and taken to the island of Crete. The origin of this name itself, as the French linguist P. Chantren concludes, is unknown. The most popular etymological hypotheses in modern literature were proposed in antiquity (along with many others), but are controversial: One etymology interprets it from the Greek roots Hebrew- and Ops- as "wide-eyed." According to the lexicographer Hesychius, the name Europia means "land of sunset, or dark", which was defined by later linguists as "sunset".

The name Europe for part of the world is absent in ancient Greek literature (in the Homeric hymn to the Pythian Apollo, only Northern Greece is called Europe) and was first recorded in the Description of the Earth by Hecateus of Miletus (end of the 6th century BC), the first book of which is devoted to Europe.

The ancient Greeks initially considered Europe to be a separate continent, separated from Asia by the Aegean and Black Seas, and from Africa - mediterranean sea. Convinced that Europe is only a small part of the vast continent, which is now called Eurasia, the ancient authors began to draw the eastern border of Europe along the Don River (such ideas are already found in Polybius and Strabo). This tradition dominated for almost two millennia. In particular, at Mercator, the border of Europe runs along the Don, and from its source - strictly north to the White Sea.
In the 15th century, when the Muslims were forced out of almost all of Spain, and the Byzantines from Asia (by the Turks), Europe briefly became almost synonymous with Christendom, but now most Christians live outside of its territory. In the 19th century, almost all of the world's industry was in Europe; today, most of the production is made outside of it. V. N. Tatishchev in 1720 proposed to draw the eastern border of Europe along the ridge Ural mountains, and further along the Yaik River (modern Ural) up to the mouth that flows into the Caspian Sea. Gradually new frontier became generally accepted first in Russia, and then beyond its borders. At present, the border of Europe is drawn: in the north - along the Arctic Ocean; in the west - along the Atlantic Ocean; in the south - along the Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara, Black Seas; in the east - along the eastern foot of the Ural Mountains, the Mugodzhar mountains, along the Yaik River (modern Ural) to the Caspian Sea, from it along the Kum and Manych rivers to the mouth of the Don (or along the Caucasian Range to the Black Sea). Europe also includes nearby islands and archipelagos.

Countries of Europe

Eastern Europe:
Belarus, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Slovakia

Northern Europe:
, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia,

If you do not take into account dependent regions and not fully recognized states, then Europe for 2017 covers 44 powers. Each of them has a capital in which not only its administration is located, but also the highest authority, that is, the government of the state.

In contact with

States of Europe

The territory of Europe stretches from east to west for more than 3 thousand kilometers, and from south to north (from the island of Crete to the island of Svalbard) for 5 thousand kilometers. The European powers are, for the most part, comparatively small. With such small sizes of territories and good transport accessibility, these states either closely border on each other or are separated by very small distances.

The European continent is divided territorially into parts:

• western;
• eastern;
• northern;
• southern.

All powers located on the European continent belong to one of these territories.

• There are 11 countries in the western region.
• In the east - 10 (including Russia).
• In the north - 8.
• In the south - 15.

Let's list all the countries of Europe and their capitals. We will divide the list of countries and capitals of Europe into four parts according to the territorial and geographical position of the powers on the world map.

Western

List of states belonging to Western Europe, with a list of main cities:

The states of Western Europe are washed mainly by currents Atlantic Ocean and only in the north of the Scandinavian Peninsula do they border on the waters of the Arctic Ocean. In general, these are highly developed and prosperous powers. But they are distinguished by an unfavorable demographic situation. This is a low birth rate and low level natural increase in population. In Germany, there is even a decline in population. All this led to the fact that developed Western Europe began to play the role of a subregion in the global system of population migration, it turned into the main center of labor immigration.

Eastern

List of states located in the eastern zone of the European continent and their capitals:

States of Eastern Europe have a lower level of economic development than their western neighbors. However, they better preserved cultural and ethnic identity. Eastern Europe is more of a cultural and historical region than a geographical one. The Russian expanses can also be attributed to the eastern territory of Europe. And the geographical center of Eastern Europe is located approximately within Ukraine.

Northern

The list of states that make up northern Europe, including capitals, looks like this:

The territories of the states of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jutland, the Baltic States, the islands of Svalbard and Iceland are included in northern part Europe. The population of these regions is only 4% of the entire European composition. Sweden is the largest country in the G8 and Iceland is the smallest. The population density in these lands is less in Europe - 22 people / m 2, and in Iceland - only 3 people / m 2. This is due to the harsh conditions of the climatic zone. But the economic indicators of development distinguish northern Europe as the leader of the entire world economy.

South

And finally, the most numerous list of territories located in the southern part, and the capitals of European states:

The Balkan and Iberian Peninsulas are occupied by these South European powers. Industry is developed here, especially ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. The countries are rich in mineral resources. In agriculture, the main efforts focused on the cultivation of food products, such as:

• grape;
• olives;
• pomegranate;
• dates.

It is known that Spain is the world's leading country in the collection of olives. It is here that 45% of all olive oil in the world is produced. Spain is also famous for its famous artists - Salvador Dali, Pablo Picasso, Joan Miro.

European Union

The idea of ​​creating a single community of European powers appeared in the middle of the twentieth century, or rather after the Second World War. The official unification of the countries of the European Union (EU) took place only in 1992, when this union was sealed by the legal consent of the parties. Over time, the number of members of the European Union has expanded, and now it includes 28 allies. And states that want to join these prosperous countries will have to prove their compliance with the European foundations and principles of the EU, such as:

• protection of the rights of citizens;
• democracy;
• freedom of trade in a developed economy.

Members of the EU

The European Union for 2017 includes the following states:

There are now applicant countries to join this foreign community. These include:

1. Albania.
2. Serbia.
3. Macedonia.
4. Montenegro.
5. Türkiye.

On the map of the European Union, you can clearly see its geography, the countries of Europe and their capitals.

Regulations and prerogatives of EU partners

The EU has a customs policy under which its members can trade with each other without duties and without restrictions. And in relation to other powers, the adopted customs tariff applies. Having common laws, the EU countries created a single market and introduced a single monetary currency - the euro. Many EU member states are part of the so-called Schengen zone, which allows their citizens to move freely through the territory of all allies.

The European Union has common governing bodies for member countries, which include:

• European Court.
• European Parliament.
• European Commission.
• The audit community that controls the EU budget.

Despite unity, the European states that have joined the community have full independence and state sovereignty. Each country uses its own national language and has its own governing bodies. But for all participants there are certain criteria, and they must meet them. For example, coordination of all important political decisions with the European Parliament.

It should be noted that since its founding, only one power has left the European community. It was Danish autonomy - Greenland. In 1985, she was outraged by the low quotas introduced by the European Union for fishing. You can also recall the sensational events in 2016 referendum in the UK, when the population voted to leave the country from the European Union. This suggests that even in such an influential and seemingly stable community, serious problems are brewing.

Western countries are the most developed region of our planet. We associate this world with rich and beautiful states, prosperous capitalism.

History of Western Europe

There are different opinions regarding the theory of the origin of European civilization. According to one theory, it was founded by the ancient Greeks. However, within the framework of another concept, its occurrence is attributed to XV-XVI century, times of the so-called "big geographical discoveries", the birth of capitalism and the reformation.

Western European civilization has gone through many stages of development, suffered a change in moral principles and aspirations. Today it is one of the most developed regions of our planet.

"Classics of the genre"

The "classic" list of Western countries includes 4 groups of states: large, medium, small and dwarf. Nearly 300 million people live in this area. 20 million of them are immigrants who came to work.

Most of these states are now part of the European Union. It ranks first in small-scale economic and industrial production. A high level of economic development makes Western countries financially secure.

In addition, Western Europe is famous for its rich culture. Many talented writers, artists and musicians, whose names are known throughout the world, were born here.

What distinguishes the Western countries of the world?

Western Europe is distinguished by the following factors:

1. Language. Almost all inhabitants of Western Europe use the Romance and Germanic language groups. The most common among them is English. It is native to 400 million people. At the same time, the group of non-Germanic languages ​​(Czech, Slovak, Hungarian) was once subjected to strong Germanization.

2. Latin alphabet. All the indigenous inhabitants of the Western countries of the world and their former colonies use the Latin alphabet, which arose in the 7th century BC. e.

3. The most common are Catholicism and Protestantism. A large percentage of atheists. Catholicism in the X century was finally formed as a separate branch of Orthodoxy. In the 16th century, when Catholics began to abuse their own religion, Protestantism was formed as a protest.

In the geographical concept, the countries of Western Europe include:

• France;
• Germany;
• Luxembourg;
• Great Britain;
• Belgium;
• Netherlands;
• Liechtenstein;
• Monaco;
• Ireland;
• Switzerland;
• Austria.

That is, the states located in Central and Northern Europe are also referred to as Western. This list can also include Norway, Denmark, Greece, Finland, Portugal, Iceland, Cyprus, Malta. These countries are part of the European Union.

In addition, the Western states are often called the USA, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, South Korea and AUR, as mentioned above. Why is such an abundance of countries called Western Europe?

Western civilization is...

Western civilization is a combination of cultural, political and economic factors. It is characterized by constant development, the movement of a person forward. It is distinguished by democracy, market-oriented production, private property relations.

The West is characterized by prosperous states, rich culture, constantly developing infrastructure. Here they know firsthand what freedom, decent wages, and a high standard of living are.

Economy of leading Western countries

The most advanced civilization in the world in the field of economics. Western Europe, which includes 25 countries, occupies a special place in the world economy. It all started with the signing of the Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community in 1957. This agreement marked the active economic development of these countries.

All modern countries of Western Europe have the same type of economic system. Their total share in total GDP (this indicator indicates the average market value of the country's final goods and services) is 24%. And in the world population - 7%.

The main economic power falls on the share of four Western countries, a list of which we will consider below. They focus 70% gross product. These are large states in terms of area, with a large number of inhabitants.

Germany is the leader in the top four. The share of GDP per capita is $47,774. The German economy is the largest in Europe. It is the largest exporter of machinery, transport and household equipment, chemicals.

Great Britain is mainly engaged in the service sector (3/4 of the population) - banking and business services, insurance, etc. The share of industry is constantly decreasing. At the moment, it is represented by two industries - mining and manufacturing. Agriculture accounts for only 1% of GDP.

France (the name of the Western country means "land of the Franks") is next in the top four. The service sector, the oil and gas industry, and transport also dominate here.

Italy is also in the top four, but today the country is increasingly plunging into a crisis, and whether it will be able to maintain its position is unknown. Experts call it the weakest link in the Eurozone, due to its demographic and economic weight. If Italy defaults, it could bring down the entire global economic system.

Who else?

The rest of the countries belong to the group of small industrial ones. Their share of GDP is:

1. 20% - Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands.

2. 8% - Austria, Greece, Finland, Denmark, Norway.

3. 2% - Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Portugal, Cyprus, Republic of Malta.

The economy of the Western states is developing unevenly, in leaps and bounds. Europe has experienced 3 crises. Today, the countries of Western Europe are characterized by a crisis of old industries - ferrous metallurgy, coal and textile industries.

There is a great scientific and technical potential. States invest huge amounts of money (up to 2% of GDP) in the development of science. Less than the US (about 16%), but more than Japan.

To date, Europe is leading in the construction of nuclear power plants, the manufacture of medicines, in some types of mechanical engineering and communications technology.

The share of agriculture reaches 8%. At the same time, the number of people involved in it has sharply decreased in recent years, but the number of manufactured products has increased. Leading European countries agricultural producers are Germany, France and Great Britain.