Historical research work on the topic

« What is the future of aerospace transport?»

SpaceX— Road to the future

About the history and development prospects of the companySpaceX

Scientific adviser: Gibatov Ildar Rafisovich, history teacher, MOBU secondary school No. 2 p. Bizhbulyak.

Research hypothesis: in the future it will be possible to use SpaceX projects as a universal aerospace transport.

Goal of the work: to find out if Space X projects can be used for the development of aerospace transport.

Tasks:

1. Learn the history of the company;
2. Explore the evolution of SpaceX launch vehicles;
3. Explore project prospects

Research methods:

1. Study and analysis of literature and relevant sites on the Internet;
2. Analysis of company reports;
3. Comparison with domestic ideas.

Object of study: private space company Space Exploration Technologies

ProjectSpaceX.Project history

By studying literature and sources on the Internet, I learn about the SpaceX project, its founder, the history of the company. In the course of research, I study its launch vehicles and bring them specifications, I analyze the reasons for unsuccessful launches.

Prospects for launch vehiclesSpaceX

Continuing to get to know SpaceX, I found out that the next development of its rockets is the Falcon Heavy launcher - a super-heavy rocket, it will be able to deliver a fully loaded Dragon spacecraft to Mars, or to Jupiter. I also learn that it will use a unique system of cross-feeding fuel.

Engines developed by the companySpaceX

SpaceX uses its own Merlin engines in its launch vehicles, which operate on an open cycle basis. This scheme is simple, reliable, and inexpensive to create and use, it is also with a great reserve for the future, and promotes the use of reusable systems. I give a comparison of the engine thrust with others and their cost, I calculate the thrust-to-weight ratio of the engine.

Reusable - reusability

While researching the company's boosters and engines, I learned about SpaceX's first stage booster project. I have found that the cost of launch is reduced by ~60% this way. And the company can invest these funds in its future developments and prospects.

In 2004, the company began developing the Dragon ship, which made its first flight in December 2010. The uniqueness of Dragon lies in the ability to return cargo from the ISS to Earth and this is the first ship produced by private company that docked with the ISS. I learn that in the future of the ship - a unique mission "Mars 2020".

Conclusion

Based on all the materials presented, I came to the conclusion that in the future it will be possible to use the SpaceX project for aerospace transport.

List of used literature

1. Ashley Vance - Elon Musk. Tesla, SpaceX and the road to the future. (Publisher: Olimp-Business; 2015; ISBN 978-5-9693-0307-2, 978-0-06-230123-9, 978-59693-0330-0)
2. V.A. Afanasiev - Experimental development of spacecraft (Publisher: M .: Izd-vo MAI .; 1994; ISBN: 5-7035-0318-3)
3. V. Maksimovsky - “Angara-Baikal. ABOUT reusable booster rocket module»
4. SpaceX official website - http://spacex.com
5. SpaceX official YouTube channel - https://goo.gl/w6x3gW
6. Material from Wikipedia - https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX

The miracle did not happen, as it did at the beginning of the third millennium, when, according to Ray Bradbury, we were supposed to colonize Mars. One often talks about the prophecies of science fiction, but one should not forget about unsuccessful forecasts - catastrophically beautiful, but still failures.

Where are the flying cars?

There is a technique under this name, but in reality it is only a hybrid of a car with an airplane. And although latest samples look futuristic, they are very, very costly and bear little resemblance to the anti-gravity transport in The Fifth Element. further away from him other developments similar in design to a helicopter, or at all equipped with a parachute and a rear propeller. Here another fantasy comes to mind - Carlson, who lives on the roof. Charming, but innovative here and does not smell.

In films and computer games, another version of individual transport flashed - a jetpack. For example, it was shown in star wars and Robocop. But here, too, things have not reached mass use, and it is unlikely that it will come soon - there is only enough fuel for half a minute of flight, and these volumes cost a tidy sum.

We ourselves, apparently, do not expect miracles so much that we even rejoice at such a creation of the Chinese innovative genius as the “portal bus”. But it is real, like the monorail in Moscow or Japanese train speeds up to 603 km/h.

And yet, for the human imagination, boundaries are unacceptable. Science fiction of the past, and just the fantasies of our ancestors on the topic of the future, have acquired a special charm and a new name - "retrofuturism". Romantic, enthusiastic love for technology and the desire to anticipate future discoveries - this can both touch and inspire today.

Reinvent the wheel

Even before they wanted to “lift the car into the air”, there were ideas to improve it. And most importantly - reinvent the wheel in a new way! A Japanese magazine in 1936 presented the concept of a car with balls instead of ordinary tires: according to the authors, this idea would ensure a smooth ride for the transport. Not such a pointless idea, according to even modern engineers. In 2016, a similar development presented by the American company Goodyear, the largest tire manufacturer.

Gigantomania gave birth to another imaginary miracle of technology - a ship on huge wheels, which, according to the inventor, was supposed to surf the sands of the Sahara and solve the problem of transport in the region. The fight against simums and other desert disasters, including heat, was provided for by the design, and the engineer promised "a trip that will turn into a pleasant journey through those places where thousands of generations struggled in vain with elemental forces and died in an unequal struggle." So the magazine "Around the World" wrote about it in 1927. It is not known how successful the idea was - it still did not come to implementation. Although it can be assumed that the promised air conditioning of such a machine, and even to overcome the sands with gear wheels, would take a lot of resources.

For public use, however, just compact models were offered. In 1947, engineer Eduard Vereyken from Brussels patented a dicycle - a self-propelled carriage consisting of two huge wheels and an open cabin in the middle. The inventor himself claimed that vehicles can accelerate to 185 km / h - but this is hard to believe. Yes, and the safety of passengers remains in question. Only in the Swedish counterpart of 1999, authored by Jonas Bjorkholtz, all design problems were taken into account. But use it now only for the entertainment of the public.

Trains were another favorite subject of engineers and dreamers. Many hopes were pinned on monorails, although they were presented in a rather unusual way - for example, like this or like this. But ordinary trains were also seen as much more perfect in the future - comfortable, spacious, and even with a view of the stars.

"Ship of the Desert" according to the 1927 version.

Each person - a helicopter!

Where fantasy unfolded to the fullest - so it's a flying vehicle. The imagination of our ancestors gave rise to saucer-like aircraft, and aircraft with wings below and turbo engines in the bow, and even submarine aircraft. You can’t mention everything - you can also look at galleries on Reddit or collections by keywords on Pinterest yourself.

But what is especially touching about all these projects is the belief in the universal accessibility of the transport of the future. Man has just conquered the air, and American magazines write: "Helicopters for Everybody!" ("Helicopters in every house!"). And among all these press clippings from almost a century ago, you can see drawings of personal aircraft. Then the truth was expected from the future only aspiration upwards, and scientific progress, and the quality of life for everyone.

Can you believe it now when you are stuck in a traffic jam during rush hour? Or when you're shaking on the top shelf reserved seat car? Clutching a smartphone in your hand, the computing power of which, as you know, is higher than that of NASA equipment in 1969?

The 21st century has not yet taken place - it certainly has not taken place in the way that fans of technical progress were waiting for. But the future, as it turned out, is unpredictable. Slowly, but it comes - we suggest that you familiarize yourself with the futuristic transport of the present.

Today's future

The Segway has become one of the most fashionable modes of personal transportation in recent times, a technological competitor for bicycles and scooters. What is its futuristic? You will have to “steer” exclusively with your body: the gyroscope and other sensors in its device react to tilt. And you only have to turn the handle or a special column. The control of a hoverboard and a unicycle is completely intuitive - I must say, it is these varieties that are popular today.

In Naberezhnye Chelny and Moscow, even the police use the Segway. In many cities, rental points have appeared where you can temporarily become the owner of a two-wheeled "self-propelled carriage" or a unicycle. On the market, a unicycle can cost up to half a million rubles, but for 20-30 thousand it is quite possible to buy a unicycle that can withstand 15 kilometers without recharging.

Another representative of modern electric transport is an electric car. Having been invented even before the fuel-powered cars we are used to, it still remains a symbol of the future. There are many reasons for this: saving resources, and environmental friendliness, and independence from the oil market. Driving an electric car today is the easiest, especially for residents of Moscow and St. Petersburg: just contact a taxi service that has such models in its fleet. In Yandex.Taxi, for example, one of the most advanced electric cars, the Tesla Model S, appeared not so long ago. Its capabilities are impressive: in just a few seconds it can accelerate to 100 km/h, while running almost silently.

The most innovative transport that is known to Russians is, of course, the Moscow monorail, “the thirteenth metro line”. It began to function in full in 2008, but even now not all residents of the regions have heard of it. As if descended from the same retrofuturistic magazine clippings, but adapted to reality, the monorail is a favorite of the public. The location of the road is also amazing - this is an overpass, that is, the train path passes completely over Moscow. The route runs from the Timiryazevskaya station to Sergei Eisenstein Street. True, recently there has been talk of dismantling the track, although last word while the proposal remains to make it a "tourist object". With payback, as it turned out, this experimental road had serious problems.

So, overcoming the difficulties of the modern world order, the future is still slowly approaching. Are levitating cars for everyone and a teleportation booth in every yard waiting for us in the coming decades? Hardly. Will the transport of the future look like what we can imagine? Also unlikely. And it's not so bad.

What is the future of aerospace transport?

Goals and objectives
The purpose of the work is to determine possible and promising areas of use, possible designs of spacecraft and their elements for solving problems of space exploration.
The tasks of the work are to study the directions of development, the features of the flight stages and their consideration in the design, structures of spacecraft and spacecraft propulsion systems.
Introduction
Thousands of years it took humanity for a more or less confident movement on their own planet. Technologies developed, a person could move farther and farther away from his native places. At the beginning of the 18th century, the development of manufactory production, the achievements of science led to the birth of aeronautics. At the beginning of the 20th century, the creation of a light and powerful internal combustion engine made it possible to take an airplane into the air, and the creation of a liquid rocket engine (LPRE) made it possible to escape into outer space. It took only 150 years to move from catching the wind to space flights (1802 - there are no steamships, 1957 - there are already space rockets).
The progress was so obvious and stunning that already in the early 1960s, forecasts were made that in 35-40 years we would spend weekends in orbit, fly on vacation to the Moon, and our spaceships would begin to surf the interstellar spaces ... Very large expectations were associated with the 21st century (1), which was still 35 years away:

Rice. 1
Pleasantly optimistic are the prospects for regular flights of spacecraft in near-Earth space and to the nearest planets of the Solar System for tourists:

Destination	Ticket price back and forth", Doll.	Qty passengers on the flight	Flight time
earth orbit	1250	200	24 hours
Moon	10000	35	6 days
Venus	32000	20	18 months
Mars	35000	20	24 months
Mars Express	70000	20	11 months

Passengers should be provided with comfort, as on airlines, railway transport And ocean liners. For each passenger during a flight to near-Earth orbit, 2.85 m3 of the volume of the ship falls, to the Moon - 11.4 m3, to the nearest planets - 28.5 m3. To clarify, the experience of long-term space flights and the work of cosmonauts at orbital stations has shown that the volume of pressurized compartments for each person should be at least 60 m3.

Development of space technology
The second half of the 20th century was devoted mainly to the exploration of near-Earth space by ballistic means, namely multi-stage rockets.
Two ways of development of space technology were immediately identified - ballistic and aerodynamic. ballistic aircrafts(LA) use only engine jet thrust for flight. Aerodynamic aircraft for flight, in addition to the reactive thrust of the engine (LPRE or air-jet engine (WFD)), use the lifting force created by the wing or body of the aircraft. There was also a combination scheme. Aerodynamic aircraft are more promising for self-controlled soft landing,,

What is a "space plane"
Aerospace transport is an extremely broad concept that includes aerospace aircraft, launch and landing systems, remote control systems, etc. In this paper, we will consider the aerospace aircraft itself, its parts and launch devices.
There is no strict name for this type of device. It is called a space plane, a spaceship, an astroplane, an aerospace plane (VKS), etc. “VKS is a type of manned jet aircraft with a carrier surface (in particular, winged), designed for flights in the atmosphere and outer space, combining the properties of an aircraft and a space aircraft. Designed for multiple use, it must be able to take off from airfields, accelerate to orbital speed, fly in outer space and return to Earth with a landing at the airfield.
The VCS is intended for flight in the atmosphere and beyond it - in outer space, and is also designed for maneuvering in the atmosphere using aerodynamic forces.
A spacecraft is either an integral reusable space system (CS), or a part of a reusable CS with returnable elements, and "returnability" is the main condition for the "reusability" of a spacecraft. Any reusable spacecraft must meet the requirements of high reliability, safety, minimum risk for the crew and payload when performing flight tasks, it must also have the advantages of conventional jet aircraft in operation and maintenance, and carry out all-weather launch and landing.
Another provision is related to the definition of the degree of "reusability" - to return the entire reusable system (by steps) or only part of it. Disposable systems require the allocation of areas for the fall of the first stages of rockets, as well as fairings. The second stages, at best, burn up in the atmosphere, and at worst, they fall to the ground or into the ocean, or remain in orbit for a long time, becoming space debris. ”(in the literal sense!) lead to the need to create a reusable CS.
Reusability - also energy losses due to structural elements of the COP that provide reusability itself (wings, landing gear, parachute systems, additional fuel for the propulsion system, etc.). New construction materials, new technologies, more efficient engines than today are required.

Flight stages
Whatever the general scenario of a spacecraft flight, it necessarily includes:
- takeoff and exit from the atmosphere,
- entry into the atmosphere and landing,
- flight in outer space.

Stage "Takeoff and exit from the atmosphere"
Almost all projects have one goal - to reduce the mass fraction of fuel in a launch vehicle (LV) or spacecraft (in LV, more than 90% of the mass is fuel).

1 booster
The most famous and developed launch systems are vertical launch systems with special platforms on which masts are placed that hold the aircraft in a vertical position (cosmodrome). Such systems were mainly used to launch aerospace vehicles (VSC), launch vehicles (LKS, Dyna-Soar) and VSC with a vertical launch (Energiya-Buran, Space Shuttle) ,. A version of the launch vehicle was also developed, in which the side blocks of the first stage, having separated, released the wing and landed on the airfield, and the central block of the second stage, having entered orbit and unloaded the launch vehicle, entered the atmosphere and landed with the help of a delta wing ("Energy-2 "").
Or - the aircraft is launched into orbit by a separate launch vehicle, and the engines of the aircraft itself are not used until reaching a stable orbit. Examples of such a launch system are Dyna-Soar rocket planes (USA), Bor (USSR), ASSET and PRIME (USA), reusable transport spacecraft Energia-Buran (USSR) and Space Shuttle (USA) ,,.
PH is developed and produced in many countries of the world. The main producers are Russia (40%), USA (26%), EU countries (21%), China (20%), Ukraine (6%), Japan (4%), India (4%), Israel (1% ). The main criteria for competitiveness are the weight of the launched launcher, design, environmental friendliness, etc., and one of the main characteristics of the launch vehicle is their reliability. The Russian Proton system has the highest indicator for this parameter - 97% of successful launches, which exceeds the average results by 10-20%.

2 Carrier aircraft
"Air launch" is one of the most promising methods of launching an aircraft; launch using a carrier aircraft (SN) is being actively developed by various developers.
The aircraft is launched to a height with the help of the SN, separated from it and, using its own engines, is brought into orbit. It is possible to install an additional rocket booster.
This withdrawal method has a number of advantages. The expected effect when using SN is 30-40% more than when starting from the Earth.
One of the pre-launch operations is the refueling of the spacecraft and launch vehicle with propellant components. But refueling can also be done in flight [FROM 2000257]. Refueling flight consists of several stages (2).
Fig.2
The functions of the SN can be performed by an ekranoplan, which has the highest carrying capacity per unit of its own weight of all aircraft heavier than air. The ekranoplan can move over land [IZ 2404090] or over the water surface [IZ 2397922].
Developers from the USA proposed a three-stage system [IZ 2191145] with the rescue of all three stages (3). Under the wing of CH (stage I), for example, the S-5 or An-124 aircraft. another aircraft is suspended with a cargo compartment located on its “back”, where stage III is placed with a fairing, in which the launcher is located. Fully fueled planes take off from an airfield near the equator. The CH rises to altitude and develops speed sufficient to launch a stage II ramjet. Stage II separates and enters a suborbital trajectory. When leaving the dense layers of the atmosphere, stage III is separated, which at apogee brings the PN into orbit. Stage II returns on its own, stage III is “picked up” and returned along with CH.
Fig.3
Reusable rocket-space system [IZ 2232700] with a very large number (up to 10) of the same fully-returnable stages (4). All stages are located one above the other with a slight offset and do not differ from each other, only the first stage has drop wings, which are equipped with rescue parachutes. The takeoff of the COP is carried out horizontally from a reusable trolley using drop wings. The PN is located in the cargo compartment of the last stage or in a special cargo capsule attached to the last stage. Only the last stage goes into orbit, and at the start, the engines of all stages work, while they are powered from the first stage tank. After the fuel in the first stage tank is depleted, this stage is separated and fuel is consumed from the second stage tank. Dropped wings are separated after the transition of the COP to vertical flight and land, each - on an individual parachute.
Fig.4
The launch of the aircraft (5) from a special, resembling a helicopter, truss with propellers, under which the aircraft is suspended, allows the aircraft to be raised to a height up to the troposphere border [FROM 2268209]. The design uses propellers with different drives and different numbers of blades. Multi-bladed propellers are driven by high-voltage electric motors with gearboxes, while small-bladed propellers are jet driven.
Fig.5

3 container
Back in 1954, V.N. Chelomei suggested launching an aircraft from a tubular container, equipped inside with guides for launching the aircraft. The container could be placed on a submarine (pressurized), a surface ship, a land-based mobile or stationary device [AC 1841043], [AC 1841044] and used to launch an aircraft with wings that open or do not open in flight. It is possible to use a tubular container for the launch of aircraft such as aircraft. The wing and plumage of the aircraft can be automatically deployed upon exiting the container. In general, the system allows to place the maximum number of aircraft in containers in a given space, to carry out the fastest launch of the aircraft without preliminary withdrawal from the container, without preliminary opening of the wings and the use of additional special launch devices.
The Rokot and Dnepr launch vehicles are launched from the transport and launch container.

4 "Cannon" start
A combined cannon-rocket ("mortar") launch from a transport and launch container is already being used to launch the RS-20 Dnepr launch vehicle. A transport and launch container is located in the launch shaft, the rocket itself and the gas generator are located in the container, which is turned on before launch and facilitates the launch of the rocket.
In the late 90s - early 2000s, as one of the promising ways to launch a spacecraft, the so-called. cannon launch - the launch of PNs (including manned spacecraft) into near-Earth orbit from an electromagnetic or gas-dynamic gun. The principle of operation of an electromagnetic gun: on a metal aircraft - a kind of core located inside the solenoid coil, in the presence of a direct current in the coil winding, the Lorentz force acts, ejecting the aircraft from the barrel of an electromagnetic gun, giving the aircraft a high speed. After the shot, the engines of the aircraft itself are turned on. When taking off from the cannon barrel (cannon in the form of a torus), the aircraft will have a speed of about 10 km / s, however, due to the high density of the atmosphere near the Earth's surface, after taking off from the cannon, the speed of the device decreases.
To reduce speed losses and reduce air resistance when flying in dense layers of the atmosphere, a thermal channel is simultaneously created using a laser beam [FROM 2343091], [FROM 2422336] - an electrical breakdown is created in the air (plasma channel), then due to the absorption of laser radiation atmospheric gases form a thermal channel with reduced pressure, through which the ship moves.

5. Flyover start
The aircraft starts on a trolley with jet engines on a special flyover. The cart brakes at the end of the overpass, and the aircraft separates from the cart and fires its own rocket engine.
A feature of the implementation of the launch from a trestle launch trolley [FROM 2102292] is the ice surface along which the aircraft moves on the trolley (6).
Fig.6
The developers propose systems with a pipe-shaped overpass in which a trolley with an aircraft moves [FROM 2381154].
Systems combining an electromagnetic gun with a flyover can also be implemented. The aircraft accelerates inside the tube with a winding and is fired upwards [FROM 2239586].

6 Aerostat
Of interest are the developments in which the aircraft is a balloon filled with hydrogen, which is consumed by the engines [IZ 2111147], [AS 1740251]. This design [FROM 2111147] helps to solve the problem of taking off a refueled vehicle. Aerospace launch transport system produced from the surface of the earth. The recovery vehicle is lifted due to the aerostatic lifting force created by the hydrogen in the cylinders (7). As a result of the operation of the engines, the return aircraft is accelerated to a speed of M = 2.5 - 3.0. Hydrogen from cylinders can be used as fuel for engines during the acceleration stage.
Fig.7

7 Sea Launch
To launch directly from the equator with the maximum use of the effect of the Earth's rotation, spacecraft for various purposes into near-Earth orbits, including high circular, elliptical, without restrictions on orbit inclination, geostationary orbit and departure trajectories, the Sea Launch rocket and space complex,.
Of course, only a small part of the possible options for the launch and withdrawal of the aircraft from the atmosphere has been considered.

Comparison of horizontal and vertical launch
There are discussions about which type of launch is better - horizontal or vertical?
With a vertical launch, it is necessary to use engines with a thrust force greater than the weight of the rocket. Such engines have a greater mass than engines for horizontal launch. With a vertical launch, it is almost impossible to use the WFD. But for a vertical start is not needed runways, only a relatively compact launch pad. Disadvantages - gravitational losses and the risk of destruction of the launch complex by debris in the event of a launch vehicle accident a few seconds after launch.
With a horizontal launch, less powerful engines can be used, and for the first stage of the flight, instead of rocket engines, use the WFD. True, a horizontal launch entails energy losses due to the means of ensuring a horizontal launch - wings and landing gear, but these losses can be minimized. With a horizontal launch, it is easier to organize the first stage rescue system. The disadvantage can be considered abduction large areas under the runways. The use of standard airfields for takeoff and landing of runways will help to solve this problem. An increase in the risk of destruction of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, located at altitudes of 15-35 km, from the operation of jet engines is expected. With a vertical launch, the rocket flies through this layer in 30-40 seconds. The problem of environmental hazard can be solved, for example, by selecting a special flight trajectory: accelerating to high speeds at an altitude of 12-14 km, performing a "slide" with a temporary increase in the angle to the horizon up to ~ 50 degrees with a quick flight through the ozone layer (flying in the ozone layer is fatal over 10 minutes), and then a decrease in the angle to the horizon to 10-20 degrees at an altitude of over 36 km. However, such a scenario may lead to an increase in aerodynamic losses.
The choice of start type is determined by the constructor. Some constructors - for a vertical start, some - for a horizontal one. V.M. Myasishchev gave a clear preference for a horizontal launch. This is how the project of the M-19 spacecraft with a nuclear engine was born, the launch of which was to take place, according to Myasishchev, in 1990 (two years after the only launch of Buran),.

Stage "Atmosphere entry and landing"
The main problem of returning from near-Earth orbit is the heating of the aircraft from friction against the air in the dense layers of the atmosphere. Hull materials and protective coatings are a whole area of ​​development. At the same time, the following tasks can and should be solved: protection from heating during interaction with the atmosphere during takeoff and landing under conditions of high speeds and atmospheric heating; exposure to solar radiation in outer space, a high temperature gradient on the sunny and shady side, long-term and short-term thermal effects of power plants, as well as protection against weapons, including laser ones.
To protect the spacecraft from thermal destruction, there are three main cooling methods, each with its own advantages and disadvantages:
- "hot" design - cooling is performed by radiation;
- ablation - cooling is carried out by evaporation of the coating, the coating is replaced after each flight;
- thermal insulation with ceramic tiles on the bottom.
Winged spacecraft have an advantage when descending in the atmosphere: overload and thermal load are reduced, maneuverability and landing accuracy are increased, but a thin profile wing is vulnerable to high temperatures.
Design work on manned return spacecraft of the Kosmoplan type began in 1960 at OKB-52 (now NPO Mashinostroeniya). As a result, the R-2 manned rocket plane and the UR-500 launch vehicle appeared, which later became the Proton. R-2, like all winged spacecraft developed by V.N. Chelomey, had folding wings, unlike most similar projects of other design bureaus. In the 1960s, thermal protection technologies lagged far behind the requirements for thermally loaded elements. Therefore, the first manned vehicles of the USSR and the USA had the shape of a sphere and an inverse cone without displacement of the center of mass.
To reduce the heating effects of the wings of aerospace aircraft, various designs of the wing itself are being developed.
Combined thermal protection [IZ 1840531] - on the outer side (8) there is a lining of quartz tiles with an external radiation coating, attached to the power set, and in the area of ​​the compartments formed by the outer skin and the power set, a capillary-porous material 2-3 thick is installed mm, which is moistened with liquid refrigerant to ensure the removal of the evaporated refrigerant.
Fig.8
Back in 1976, NPO Energia suggested using a magnetic field for protection. The temperature of the air in contact with the spacecraft during braking at the first cosmic velocity reaches ~8000°C, and the air is ionized. Without the presence of an external magnetic field, the ions diffuse into the fuselage area, where it is colder, and a recombination reaction occurs, due to which heat is released. Inside the spacecraft (9) it is possible to install powerful permanent magnets that create a magnetic field [AC 1840521], which makes it difficult for ions and electrons to diffuse to the fuselage surface, so recombination reactions will occur at a greater distance from the fuselage, heating of the fuselage from the heat of these reactions will decrease.
Fig.9
It is possible to implement cooling by defrosting, when a solid structural element turns into a liquid state and this liquid is discharged overboard or into an onboard highway [FROM 2033947]. The advantage of this design is that the solid refrigerant can be a structural element before melting.

entrance corridor
To reduce the likelihood of aircraft heating and destruction during atmospheric entry, it is necessary to know and use "natural" possibilities. For planets other than Mercury, and satellites (Titan, Enceladus, possibly Ganymede) with an atmosphere, one must remember the so-called. entrance corridor - the difference in perigee heights between the allowable limit values ​​for heights below and above the planned one. An altitude below the planned one will lead to a breakdown or combustion of the spacecraft, and above it will lead to the spacecraft leaving the atmosphere. The width of the corridor depends on the allowable restrictions on thermal load and overloads for a particular device; at parabolic speed - approximately equal to: Venus - 113 km, Earth - 105 km, Mars - 1159 km, Jupiter - 113 km,. But even in the corridor, the dissipated energy will be huge. An extreme example is the entry of the Galileo apparatus into the atmosphere of Jupiter at a speed of 47.5 km/sec, 3.8∙105 megajoules were dissipated 4 minutes before the braking parachute was opened. The surface temperature was 15,000 K, and 90 kg of the ablation material evaporated (with the apparatus weighing 340 kg).
An interesting advantage is the scheme of the apparatus-disk with an ablatively cooled bottom and vacuum thermal protection of the cabin. When entering the atmosphere at an angle of 45 degrees, the cabin of such a device will be in a zone of almost absolute vacuum, which will reliably protect it from heating during entry.
Stage "Flight in outer space"
In this paper, we will not consider this section in detail, we list only some of the factors that should be taken into account in the development and design of spacecraft , , : ionizing radiation, a changed magnetic field, solar radiation (UV), vacuum (leads to slow evaporation of the spacecraft skin), meteorite hazard, temperature gradient, cosmic radiation, space debris, fuel components.
In addition, the conditions of stay on board a spacecraft have a significant effect on a person: acceleration, artificial atmosphere, isolation, hypokinesia, weightlessness.

The layout and design of the spacecraft
Spacecraft projects are carried out mainly according to two schemes:
. Bearing body
. Aircraft.
The layout of the supporting body - there are no horizontal aerodynamic surfaces, except for the controls - flaps, flaps, elevators, etc. It was assumed that vehicles with a load-bearing body (ANK) would be launched into space using a launch vehicle. They have a greater lateral maneuver than ballistic vehicles, but also very limited, and also do not have sharp edges (except for keels) carried out into the stream. However, in the course of testing (mainly in the USA, vehicles M2-F1, M2-F2, etc. under the PILOT program, ASV and ASE under the ASSET program and vehicles of the PRIME program) it turned out that ANK have a low lift-to-drag ratio (<1 на гиперзвуке), неудовлетворительную устойчивость по крену и высокую скорость снижения, а величина бокового маневра увеличивалась не очень значительно.
Aircraft layout. Most often, the spacecraft is made according to the “tailless” scheme with a delta-shaped wing of small elongation. This scheme is distinguished by a significant amount of lateral maneuver, greater than that of ballistic vehicles and vehicles with a carrier body. However, the aero- and thermodynamic calculations of the winged scheme are more complicated, and additional thermal protection of the sharp edges of the wing is also required. But these shortcomings are more than offset by the advantages: the ability to deliver something from orbit and the complete return of the orbital block.
Each reusable spacecraft, unlike a disposable launch vehicle, carries the means of re-orbiting or launch trajectory. One such means of reentry is aerodynamic surfaces - the hull or wing.

1 Discolet
Can be considered an independent class with a layout that includes both "carrying body" and "aircraft".
The reusable aerospace system [AS 580696] is intended for launching a PN into a reference near-Earth orbit, as well as returning space objects from orbit to Earth using a transport spacecraft (10). The hull (fuselage) and the wing of the stages and the TKK represent a single body-wing, the profile of which is a semi-disk for the steps and a disk for the TKK; both steps and TKK in terms of a circle or an ellipse. Both stages and the TKK are manned and connected by walkways with the possibility of moving from one cabin to another.
Rice. 10
A reusable aerospace take-off system with an aircraft in the form of a disk with a drop-shaped transverse profile [AC 1740251] consists of an aircraft with a vacuum power plant (VPU) connected to the launch guide and aerostatic shells connected to the launch guide - another version of the "balloon launch" ( eleven).
The wind turbine evacuates the aerostatic shells to lift the aircraft to the required height and set the launch guide at the required angle. The aircraft is landing on an airfield or on a water surface while maintaining a stable position. Aerostatic shells are returned to Earth and reused.
Fig.11
Engineers do not abandon the idea of ​​an aircraft in the form of a disk in the 21st century. Diskoplane [PM 57238] with many thermonuclear rocket engines on the circumference, will be able to reach speeds from 0 to 15 km / s and carry cargo to the surface of the moon, carry out work in geostationary orbit.
The ekip ekranolet became the inspirer of the plate-shaped aircraft [IZ 2396185] with a disk-shaped fuselage.

2 Bearing body
To solve a number of space tasks, a space aircraft [IZ 2137681] with a body in the form of a monowing (12) can be used, in which three interconnected fuselages are placed, fuel tanks and several groups of jet engines are installed - sustainer, takeoff and landing, braking and gas turbine. Means of power supply also contain solar panels.
Fig.12

3. Aircraft layout
The proposed schemes are extremely diverse.
As a winged "shuttle" with cavities, for the launch vehicle, a reusable spacecraft was made [IZ 2111902]. This makes it possible to improve the controllability of the "shuttle" in the launch area due to the elimination of thrust misalignment due to the placement of the shuttle on the side of the launch vehicle. The spacecraft takes off vertically, and after the operating time of the launch vehicle, they are separated from the "shuttle". A similar idea of ​​discarding the built-in launch vehicle has been (or will be) implemented in the Lynx rocket plane.
An interesting and unexpected proposal is the use of vehicles of different bases for delivering the PN into orbit [FROM 2120397]. Independently operating aircraft - VKS, based on an orbital space station, and a ground-based transport aircraft (TC), each take off from their own base. Docking and exchange of cargoes take place in the Earth's atmosphere during the joint flight, undocking and return of each aircraft to the base point.
The two-stage spacecraft developed by N.E. Staroverov [IZ 2503592] consists of winged first and second stages and a wingless solid rocket booster (single-use) located between them. The first stage and rocket booster are unmanned, the second stage is manned. At the start, two-circuit turbojet engines work. Acceleration and lifting are carried out with sequential inclusion of engine modes, at different angles to the horizontal.
Of course, single-stage systems capable of launching from the Earth's surface are of particular interest.
The development of single-stage spacecraft is carried out by the Indian company Advisor, Defense Research and Development Organization - a single-stage aerospace aircraft [PO 51288]. It is equipped with two VRDs and two LREs, and the air intake is rectangular in shape.
In the US, SUNSTAR IM is developing a "garage-based" personal single-stage spacecraft. It is assumed that the spacecraft will enter the orbital trajectory and, probably, dock with the orbital station. The design feature is the possibility of folding the wings (13) hinged to the fuselage for storage and delivery to the launch site and back.
Fig.13
One of the directions is tourist spacecraft.
The Russian Aviation Consortium is developing [PO 78697] a suborbital tourist aircraft.
MAI is one of the developers of the aerospace system project for scientific and sports purposes. The system includes a suborbital rocket glider with a MiG-31S carrier aircraft, a ground support system and a sports and technical complex for training potential crews.
Space tourism is the only direction in which spacecraft are currently implemented. In 2016, the first flight of the Lynx suborbital aerospace aircraft is planned, and the SpaceShipTwo tourist suborbital capsule and the WhiteKnightTwo carrier aircraft (two-stage system) have been in trial operation for several years. However, space tourism is expensive. R. Branson, one of the enthusiasts of aviation and space tourism, complained that space travel was either astronomically expensive: in the Soviet Union (it says so there!) They asked him for 30 million dollars for a flight to the ISS, or it was inconvenient and unsafe.
SpaceShipTwo is powered by a hybrid rocket engine with a solid fuel and a liquid oxidizer. SpaceShipTwo is designed for 8 people - 2 crew members and 8 passengers. The purpose of the company - flights should be safe and affordable. The WhiteKnightTwo carrier aircraft is a twin-fuselage aircraft, the SpaceShipTwo capsule is attached between the fuselages.
A spaceplane capable of speeds greater than Mach 0.9 and capable of trans- and/or supersonic flight is being developed by ASTRIUM SAS (Airbus), France. The aircraft is equipped with two atmospheric turbojet engines and a rocket engine. When their atmosphere leaves, the air intakes are closed by special movable dome-shaped valves that repeat the shape of the aircraft fuselage.
The suborbital single-stage CS Lynx, manufactured by XCOR Aerospace Incompany (USA), can be used to deliver tourists into space, conduct scientific research and launch a payload weighing up to 650 kg into low orbit using an external upper stage. Without an external compartment with an upper stage, Lynx can be used to deliver several tourists into space or a tourist and a set of scientific instruments for space exploration.
Lynx uses spark-ignition, reusable rocket motors powered by liquid oxygen - liquid hydrocarbons (kerosene, methane, ethane, isopropanol) components.
The British company Bristol Spaceplanes is developing a spacecraft for transporting tourists. Ascender is a suborbital rocket plane that can deliver one pilot and one passenger or one pilot and a set of scientific equipment to an altitude of up to 100 km.
Ascender is to kick-start the development of a two-stage Spacebus system, an orbital aircraft capable of carrying up to 50 passengers and flying from Europe to Australia in about 75 minutes. Since the basis of the project is, if possible, standard elements of aviation and space systems, the cost of a Spacebus flight will be 100 times less than the cost of a Shuttle flight.
The news of 2004 was presented by EMZ them. V.M. Myasishchev and the Suborbital Corporation aerospace system Cosmopolis-XXI (C-XXI) - a combination of the M-55 Geophysics carrier aircraft and a suborbital rocket plane. The project has not been implemented.

Spacecraft propulsion systems
No matter how good the design, no matter how thoughtful the flight plan, the spacecraft will not fly anywhere without an engine.
It was assumed that for the leading space powers by the end of the 1980s, the usual task would be to launch a total payload weighing 900 - 1000 tons. As the most promising engines, NREs with a gas-phase core, thermonuclear and pulsed thermonuclear engines were considered.
Any propulsion system (DS) must include an energy source, a source of the working fluid (discarded mass) and the engine itself, and in some types of engines the energy source and the working fluid are combined (chemical engines).
Conventionally, power plants can be divided into three groups:
1. Autonomous - the source of energy and the working fluid are on board (LRE and other chemical, NRE);
2. Semi-autonomous - DS with external energy sources: engines that use the energy of external lasers, microwave generators, the Sun (“in metal” there are only ion and plasma);
3. Non-autonomous engines using the atmosphere, the interplanetary medium, the material of planets and asteroids, as well as the solar wind (solar sail) as a working body.
Engines are divided according to the type of energy sources, the initial state of the working fluid and other features.
None of the existing WFDs can be used on a spacecraft in all flight modes. Therefore, the very concept of acceleration on the WJ requires a combined propulsion system with engines of different types. The struggle for flight speed is, first of all, the struggle for increasing the power and efficiency of the engine.
Let's consider some types of engines that are promising for use on spacecraft.

liquid jet engine
LRE is the most common engine for spacecraft and launch vehicles. A feature of the rocket engine is the ability to work in the entire range of altitudes. However, rocket engines consume a large amount of fuel and oxidizer, and also have a relatively low efficiency.
Promising areas of development:
- LRE with adjustable critical section area; the specific impulse with a reduced thrust value increases by 3-4%.
- LRE with a change in the process of the ratio of fuel components Km (oxidizer - liquid oxygen, fuel - liquid hydrogen) several times (up to Km=15) during the operation of the combustion chamber; the engine is put into nominal mode (Km=6) after climbing, which ensures a high specific thrust impulse; provides a lower consumption of hydrogen and a reduction in the size and weight of the tanks.

Hybrid rocket engines (GRD)
In fact, GREs are ordinary rocket engines in which the fuel components are in different phases, for example, liquid fuel - solid oxidizer, or solid fuel - liquid oxidizer. According to the characteristics of the GRE, they occupy an intermediate position between the LRE and the solid propellant rocket engine. GRE advantages - they require the control of the supply of only one component, the second does not require tanks, valves, pumps, etc., they have the ability to control traction and shutdown, they do not require separate cooling systems for the walls of the combustion chamber: the evaporating solid component cools the walls. This type of engine is installed on the SpaceShipTwo space plane,.

Ramjet engine (ramjet)
Due to the relative simplicity of the design, as well as the ability to operate in a wide range of speeds, a ramjet is considered in many spacecraft projects. In these projects, ramjet engines play the role of the main engine for acceleration in the atmosphere, since they have practically no restrictions on the maximum speed of atmospheric flight. The efficiency and power of a ramjet increase with speed and altitude. One of the shortcomings of ramjet engines is that to launch them, it is necessary to accelerate the device to speeds of about 300 km / h, and in the case of hypersonic ramjet engines, to supersonic speeds using other types of engines.
A ramjet can use solid powder fuel, such as coal. It was proposed to use coal powder as a primary fuel in the Li P.13 aircraft project by A. Lippisch.
The most promising ramjet design is considered to be a hybrid rocket-ramjet engine. Such an engine has a higher specific impulse than a rocket engine, and a higher thrust per 1 m2 of cross-sectional area, and in some cases a higher specific impulse. RPVRD can be effectively used in a wide range of speeds. It consists of a rocket circuit - a gas generator, which is a solid propellant rocket engine, rocket engine or gas engine, and a direct-flow circuit.
The use of metals as a fuel is due to their high activity, significant heat release and makes it possible to create fundamentally new highly efficient ramjet engines for guided missiles. The advantages of ramjet engines on powdered metal fuel, using atmospheric air as an oxidizer, are that they provide high performance characteristics, can be used in a wide range of speeds, and are reliable in handling and storage.
One of the tasks of designing a ramjet is to ensure complete combustion of the fuel. An interesting solution was proposed by employees of the Tactical Missiles Corporation [FROM 2439358]. A metal powder, such as aluminum or magnesium, is proposed as a fuel. An air-powder suspension with excess air is formed in the prechamber, and this mixture begins to burn. Powder particles are completely burned in the afterburner. A jet stream is formed.
The Design Bureau of Chemical Automation, together with CIAM, is developing a research hypersonic ramjet - an axisymmetric hypersonic ramjet. Scramjet 58L with a rectangular chamber is designed for experimental studies of working processes during hydrogen combustion in a supersonic flow. In 1998, a flight test of the engine was successfully carried out, in which the speed of Mach 6.35 was achieved for the first time in the world.
Also, flight tests of a model axisymmetric dual-mode scramjet engine on liquid hydrogen were carried out in the range of flight Mach numbers from 3.5 to 6.5 at an altitude of up to 28 km.
At the same time, CIAM scientists are creating a new scheme for a supersonic pulsed detonation ramjet engine (SPPD) with a supersonic flow in a detonation combustion chamber and combustion in a pulsed detonation wave. Calculations for the hydrogen-air PDAP showed that when flying at an altitude of H = 25 km, it can operate at flight Mach numbers m/s from 4.5 to 7.5 .

Nuclear rocket engine (NRE)
The use of thermal energy of nuclear fission reactions of unstable elements seems to be the most promising direction in the development of thermal rocket engines.
YARD - rocket engines, the energy source for which is nuclear rocket fuel; have a higher specific impulse than the most efficient rocket engines. But at the same time, nuclear rocket engines have a larger mass than rocket engines, since they are equipped with a radioprotective screen.
The YARD consumes little fuel for a long time and can operate for a long time without refueling.
The main classes of the YARD:
- direct heating: the working fluid is heated when passing through the area containing the fissile material (RD-0410);
- with an intermediate energy conversion system, where nuclear energy is first converted into electrical energy, and electrical energy is used to heat or accelerate the working fluid, i.e. they are a nuclear reactor and associated ERE ("TOPAZ 100/40"),.
YARD RD-0410 can be used for accelerating, decelerating spacecraft and correcting their orbit during deep space exploration. This engine is made in a closed circuit, the working fluid is liquid hydrogen. Due to the thermodynamic perfection of the working fluid and its high heating temperature in a nuclear reactor (up to 3000 K), the engine has high efficiency, the specific thrust impulse in vacuum is 910 kgf.s/kg, which is twice as good as that of an LRE based on hydrogen-oxygen components and 1.85 times higher than that of hydrogen-fluorine rocket engines. But it's also history. KBHA was instructed to develop the YARD RD0410 and RD0411 in 1965.
The NRE underwent many years of detailed research: during the 1970s - 1990s, more than three dozen nuclear electrical installations (NPPs) of three modifications were operated in space, designed to supply spacecraft equipment with electricity according to the principle of converting the thermal energy of a nuclear reactor into electricity in a semiconductor thermoelectric generator.
Work on the creation of a nuclear power plant for spacecraft continues JSC Krasnaya Zvezda, [IZ 2421836], [IZ 2507617].
However, nuclear rocket engines and nuclear power plants have not yet found practical application even in demonstration flights, although they continue to be considered promising for deep space flights. Doubts were also expressed whether such an engine was needed and whether it would be developed.
During operation, the NRE emits radioactive radiation, so radiation protection of the ship is required. Full shielding is required in the atmosphere, and shady enough in space when the engine is shielded from the main ship by a protective shield.
The disposal of nuclear power plants after the end of operation is carried out by transfer to an orbit where the lifetime of the reactor is sufficient for the decay of fission products to a safe level (at least 300 years). In the event of any accidents with a spacecraft, the nuclear power plant incorporates a highly effective additional radiation safety system (DSRS), which uses the aerodynamic dispersion of the reactor to a safe level.
Let's get back to forecasts. In 1966, J. Konechchi wrote that, according to the most pessimistic assessment, the commissioning of a nuclear rocket engine with a gas-phase core would be 1990 ... A quarter of a century has passed.

Laser rocket engine (LRE)
The characteristics of the LJE are considered to lie between those of the NRE and EJE.
LJE is designed to provide thrust to an aircraft driven by a plasma flash initiated by a laser. Since 2002, KBHA in cooperation with the Research Center named after. M.V.Keldysh and the Research Institute of Optoelectronic Devices is investigating the problem of creating a LJE, which is significantly more economical than traditional chemical-fueled engines.
In the project of another JPL [FROM 2559030], the principle of operation is different. A continuous optical discharge is created in the combustion chamber using a laser. The working body, interacting with the discharge plasma, acquires supersonic speed.
Photon rocket engine - a hypothetical rocket engine that creates thrust as a result of a directed outflow of photons from it, has a limiting value of the specific impulse, because the flow of photons has the maximum achievable speed - the speed of light. . The development of the theory of photonic rockets has a long history. According to E. Zenger, photonic rockets, driven by the reaction of a stream of photons ejected from a rocket, will make it possible to fly to the most remote regions of the Galaxy
Perhaps this is a matter of terminology. Photon engines are now sometimes called engines using a laser; in 1958, lasers had not yet been created. A photon engine [PM RU 64298] of a "conventional" design contains a powerful laser as a source of photons; a distinctive feature is the use of an optical resonator, which makes it possible to increase engine thrust.
Another photon engine [IZ 2201527] differs in that it uses a diamond crystal and radial mirrors as a resonator. The resonator is also used to increase thrust.

Electric jet engine (EP)
Electric propulsion engines throw out the working fluid using an electromagnetic field or heating the working fluid with electricity. In most cases, the electrical energy necessary for the operation of the EJE is taken from internal power sources (radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), batteries) or from the Sun.
The main classes of ERE, work processes are fundamentally different,:
- ionic
- thrusters with azimuthal electron drift
- high current motors
- heat-exchange electric propulsion.
In ion electric propulsion engines, noble gas ions (in most projects, xenon) serve as the working fluid, and in the case of heat-exchange electric propulsion engines, low-melting metal vapors. The first xenon ion thruster used in space was the RITA thruster on the Eureca (ESA) mission in 1992, .
Electric propulsion engines have a fairly high efficiency, reaching 0.7. It was the ERE in combination with a nuclear reactor that was proposed as the main engines of arrival / departure for a flight to Mars.
Currently, EREs are used on some spacecraft as attitude thrusters, main boosters of interplanetary spacecraft (Deep Space 1, SMART-1), low thrust thrusters for maintenance and ultra-small orbit corrections.
The history of the development of ion engines has more than one decade. So, one of the sources of information for the development of the ion engine of the Messerschmitt - Bölkow-Blom GmbH (Germany) company [patent 682150] was a book by S. L. Eilenberg and A. L. Huebner published back in 1961.

Applications of the spacecraft
1 Military application (obtaining intelligence information about the actions of a potential enemy, reconnaissance and destruction of enemy space targets, etc.), for this the first spacecraft were created
2 Delivering a payload into space;
3 Delivery of cargo and crew to orbital stations. At present, delivery of cargo to the ISS can only be carried out by Progress (Russia), Dragon (USA), Cygnus (USA), HTV (Japan) spacecraft; delivery of people - only Soyuz ships (Russia)
4 Refueling interplanetary ships
5 Tests of advanced propulsion systems with the possibility of their return to Earth
6 Capture and delivery to Earth of space debris
7 Upper atmosphere exploration
8 Delivery of a payload to the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon (ASL)
9 Satellite inspection and maintenance
According to modern estimates, the possible distribution of tasks performed by the spacecraft: 57% - space tourism; 18% - conducting scientific research; 12% - operational remote sensing and environmental monitoring, 8% 5% - training of cosmonauts and 5% - implementation of advertising projects.
This list did not include another promising area for spacecraft - the extraction of planetary minerals.
As the analysis shows, space tourism may become the most demanded in the near future.
The preconditions for this can be considered a combination of a number of circumstances:
- aviation and aeronautics are widely developed,
people are used to flying
- accumulated considerable experience in flights on manned spacecraft,
- modern aircraft production technologies guarantee technical excellence and a high degree of aircraft reliability,
- there are many people who can pay for space flight,
- in the modern flow of information, there are not enough "virtual" resources.
Possible scenarios for tourist flights (let's go back to 1966 - fantasy or science fiction (?)):
- suborbital flights to a height of up to 100 km,
- orbital, from several hours to several days.
- orbital - 1-2 weeks with a stop at a space hotel.
- flights to the Moon with access to its orbit, landing on the surface and accommodation in a hotel on the surface, lasting from several weeks to several months;
- flights to Mars and its satellites with access to orbit, landing on the surface and accommodation in a hotel on the surface of Mars from several days to several weeks.
- flybys of Jupiter, Saturn and their satellites with landings on the surface of the satellites.
Implementation requires reliable and safe reusable aircraft with low-cost repairs and maintenance; structural modules that become more complex as new routes are mastered; an increased degree of comfort for the crew and passengers; specialized infrastructure of training centers for flight preparation and post-flight rehabilitation; independent infrastructure of launch facilities, landing sites, flight control. The same principles apply to scientific and research tasks.

Conclusion
There is a class of problems that need to be solved. Most of them can be solved using spacecraft, in particular, such as the delivery of payloads and crew to orbital stations, the launch of automatic spacecraft into orbit, the return of obsolete satellites from orbit with the aim of reusing their valuable components, monitoring the earth's surface and orbital conditions , as well as the return from orbit of large objects of space debris, the "transportation" of space tourists. The development of spacecraft begins again. Some of them have already reached the stage of trial operation.

Conclusion
Theoretical calculations, studies, as well as so far few, but real launches, have shown the capabilities of reusable systems. The current state of technology, economics and politics provide a real chance for the resumption and development of the construction of highly efficient aerospace transport systems and the possibility in the medium term of implementing close flights, and in the long term - long-term, including interplanetary, flights for various purposes.
Forecasts are a thankless thing. According to forecasts, for a decade and a half we have to settle in a base on Titan. But maybe in 2030...

List of sources
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Ministry of Education of the Republic of Bashkortostan

MKU Department of Education AMR Bizhbulyaksky district

MOBU secondary school No. 2 with. Bizhbulyak

Historical research work on the topic

« What is the future of aerospace transport?»

SpaceX - Road to the Future

About the history and development prospects of the companySpaceX

Completed by: Agleev Linar, 10th grade

MOBU SOSH No. 2 p. Bizhbulyak

MR Bizhbulyaksky district

Republic of Bashkortostan

School address:

452040 Republic of Bashkortostan,

MR Bizhbulyaksky district,

With. Bizhbulyak, st. Central, 72

Phone: 8 347 43 2 17 21

Fax: 8 347 43 2 17 21

Head: Gibatov I.R.

With. Bizhbulyak, 2015

Introduction

Chapter 1. ProjectSpaceX

• 1.1 Project history
• 1.2. Prospects for SpaceX launch vehicles
• 1.3. Engines developed by SpaceX
• 1.4. Reusable
• 1.5. Dragon

Conclusion

References

Applications

Introduction

We now live on the verge of a colossal event -

such as the transmigration of life to other planets.

Elon Musk

Having got acquainted with the regulations on the Mozhaisky Olympiad, I was interested in the question: “What is the future of aerospace transport?” I decided to look for an answer to it. As a result of the search, I learned about the project of a private company SpaceX, which dreams of creating a Martian Colonial Transport and reducing the cost of space flights.

I put forward hypothesis: in the future it will be possible to use SpaceX projects for aerospace transport.

Goal of the work: to find out if the Space X project can be used for the development of aerospace transport

Tasks:

1. Explore the history of the project
2. Explore the evolution of SpaceX launch vehicles, their engines, and their benefits
3. Explore the prospects of the SpaceX project

Research methods:

1. Study and analysis of literature and relevant sites on the Internet
2. Analysis of company reports

Object of study: private space company SpaceX

Chapter 1. ProjectSpaceX

1.1. Project history

I learned that SpaceX's history dates back to 2001. Its leader, Elon Max, has been fond of space all his life. He dreamed of creating his own rocket project. He called this project SpaceX - Space Exploration Systems.

The first rocket the company developed was called the Falcon 1 because it used a single Merlin engine. This rocket had outstanding characteristics, a light class rocket (see Appendix 1). The payload was only up to 600 kilograms. During the tests, the engines turned off, then exploded.

By 2004, the engines began to work stably.

In 2006, the first launch of the Falcon 1 rocket took place. The rocket rose, rapidly rushed into the sky and exploded at 25 seconds. Fell near the launch pad. The reason was the destruction of the nut to which the fuel line was attached to the engine.

During the second run, the first stage worked perfectly. After the separation of the stages, the second stage engine was turned on. But during the development of fuel, the fuel inside the tanks began to splash, the stage began to sway and collapsed.

The third launch took place in August 2008. During the third launch, during the stage separation, the first stage did not move away from the second. All this happened due to the fact that an engine with a different type of cooling was installed on the third rocket.

The fourth launch was made a month after the third launch. As a payload, unlike the first launches, they did not use a satellite - this launch used a weight-and-size model of cargo. In September 2008, the first and second stages worked perfectly and brought this weight and size cargo into orbit with a perigee of 500 kilometers and an apogee of 700 kilometers around the Earth.

The next evolutionary step at SpaceX was the Falcon 9 rocket, which used 9 Merlin engines in its technology. And the first rocket from the Falcon 9 family was the version 1.1 rocket. (See Annex 2). Falcon 9 (v 1.0) had nine engines, which were arranged in a row. The missile was controlled by the distribution of thrust between the engines along the perimeter. The motors were not spinning, no motor slew control was used. The system distributed thrust, thereby controlling the movement. Such missiles were built 5 pieces. After that, they began to use a new version of the Falcon 9 rocket (v 1.1). In version 1.1, the tanks were increased, the most noticeable difference was the transition from an in-line arrangement of engines to an annular arrangement (see appendix 3.5). The ring arrangement made it possible to place the central engine on a suspension, due to which the control began to be carried out by turning the central engine. This was necessary in order to return the stage to Earth in the future. Of the 19 launches of such missiles at the moment, there are 5 launches of version 1.0, and the remaining 14 are of version 1.1.

The next stage is version 1.2 (Falcon 9 v 1.2). The fundamental difference between the rocket is the use of a supercooled oxygen oxidizer. Cryogenic oxygen is passed through a special device, through liquid nitrogen, due to which it is cooled to approximately -215 degrees Celsius. This increases the density of the oxidizer by 7%, respectively, allowing you to put more oxidizer by weight into the rocket. The fuel is now also cooled to -30 degrees Celsius - this increases the efficiency of the rocket's cooling system. Falcon 9 version 1.2 is planned in three versions (see Appendix 6). The first version is the Dragon 1 version, the second is the Dragon 2 version currently under construction, and the third version is the payload fairing version to put the satellites into orbit. The new version made it possible to increase the payload mass by about 30%. This is necessary in order to put heavy loads into orbit, and in each launch to install a stage return system that occupies a certain mass and a certain fuel.

1.2. Prospects for launch vehiclesSpace X

Continuing to get acquainted with the SpaceX project, I found out that the next, not only qualitative, but also quantitative development of SpaceX rockets is the Falcon Heavy launch vehicle (see Appendix 7). A super-heavy rocket, the central block is a Falcon 9 plus two additional upper stages, which are the first stages of the rocket. All three parts will be returned to Earth. The first two stages are planned to be returned to the shore, to the landing sites, the third stage will fly a little further along its ballistic trajectory and therefore it is planned to land it on a floating spaceport - on a barge. Also in this rocket will be used a unique system of cross-feeding fuel. What it is - during the launch, all three blocks work - these are 27 engines (3x9), but the fuel and oxidizer are taken from the two extreme blocks, the central one remains intact until the extreme blocks are undocked. During their undocking, fuel begins to be consumed from the central part and this improves the characteristics of the rocket. The biggest change to a rocket is the mass it can carry into orbit. In low-support orbit, that's 53 tons - an incredible mass. To Mars - 13.2 tons. Falcon Heavy will be capable of delivering a fully loaded Dragon spacecraft to Mars, and a partially loaded one to Jupiter.

1.3. Engines developed by the companySpaceX

I learned that SpaceX has developed simple Merlin engines that use open cycle (see appendix 9.12) This means that part of the fuel and oxidizer is used to force fuel into the combustion chamber. A gas generator is used in which part of the fuel and oxidizer burns, spinning turbines that supply high-pressure fuel to the combustion chamber, and the exhaust gases exit through a pipe. In the first version of the Falcon 1, the vectoring of this exhaust was used to steer the rocket.

The open loop scheme is simple, reliable, inexpensive to build and use. Because it uses a low pressure in the combustion chamber - and this, with a great reserve for the future, contributes to the use of reusable systems.

I found out that Merlin engines do not have as high thrust as our legendary RD-108 engine, and not the highest specific impulse, which shows the efficiency of the engine (see appendix 10)

However, they have an advantage - thrust-to-weight ratio (see Appendix 11). Thrust-to-weight ratio is how much dead weight an engine can lift. 157 units - this is a record for an engine of such a scheme. Only rockets that use toxic fuels are higher. It is planned that the engines will be returned and reused.

1.4. Reusable - reusability

While researching the company's boosters and engines, I learned about SpaceX's first stage booster project (see Appendix 13). In fact, this reusable theory has both many supporters and many opponents. But it is this feature that significantly reduces the cost of SpaceX launches. I have found that the cost of launch is reduced by ~60% this way. And the company can invest these funds in its future developments and prospects.

Work on reusability began in 2011 at SpaceX's MacGregor Test Site in Texas. Using a test rig called Grasshopper ( Grasshopper). This rocket, which, in fact, was the first stage of the Falcon 9 launch vehicle. Why Grasshopper? Grasshopper, because this rocket “jumped”, it made jumps and worked out the moment of landing the stage by changing the engine thrust and its vector.

In 2014, the return system began to be installed on existing launch vehicles that were launched as part of SpaceX missions. In April 2014, the first attempt was made to land the stage - not on the surface, but simply in the ocean. The rocket approached the surface of the water at the required speed, slowed down and plunged into the water.

In 2015, tests began with the stage landing on a floating barge-cosmodrome, which was in the ocean. It used four diesel engines, which held the barge at a certain point, with an accuracy of several meters, and the stage landed on this barge. The case when a landing attempt was made was in April 2015, then it “almost succeeded”: the rocket approached well, it hit the right place, but as a result of a slight demolition, it capsized and exploded.

On December 22, the Falcon 9 v.1.2 FT was launched, the first launch since the June 2015 accident. This is the first time SpaceX has managed to launch the lower stage of a Falcon 9 launch vehicle in a controlled descent (see Appendix 13). Thus, the company was able to save it for reuse. I learned that at the moment the rocket is undergoing the necessary tests to determine its condition after launch and landing. This rocket will not fly again - Elon Musk said that they will save it for their own museum.

Our compatriots also tried to create similar projects. In GKNPTs them. Khrunichev, together with NPO Molniya, developed Baikal (see Appendix 15), a project for a reusable booster for the first stage of the Angara launch vehicle. The main idea of ​​the project was that the rocket booster that completed the task, having separated from the carrier, would automatically return to the launch site and land on the aircraft runway like a winged unmanned aerial vehicle. But, unfortunately, our project remained at the development stage. The developers showed the model of the accelerator in 2001, at the MAKS-2001 aerospace show.

1.5. Dragon

In 2004, the company began developing the Dragon ship, which made its first flight in December 2010. The useful volume is 11 cubic meters, it is also able to carry cargo in the "trunk", the volume of which is 14 m 3 ( see appendix 16).

I found out that the Dragon is unique in its ability to return cargo from the ISS to Earth and is the first ship made by a private company to dock with the ISS.

Dragon V2 is the second version of the ship. It uses Super Draco motors, fully 3D printed. Two engines are combined into 1 cluster. There are 4 clusters in total. Using these engines, the ship will be able to land independently without using parachutes ( see appendix 17).

I learned that in the perspective of the Dragon spacecraft, the Mars 2020 mission, in which a rover, created similar to the existing Curiosity, will collect Martian soil samples in a container, after which it will deliver it to the take-off and landing point of the Dragon spacecraft, which will deliver them into orbit and then to Earth.

Conclusion

Having studied information about the Space X project, I found out that the project's prospect is to use new Raptor engines, about which nothing is known yet. This rocket will be fully reusable, the first and second stages will be reused. And it will deliver into orbit the Martian Colonial Transport (see Appendix 18), which will be used to deliver people to Mars - about a hundred people will be placed on one ship. Based on all the materials presented, I came to the conclusion that in the future it will be possible to use the SpaceX project for aerospace transport.

List of used literature and sources

1. Ashley Vance - Elon Musk. Tesla, SpaceX and the road to the future. (Publisher: Olimp-Business; 2015; ISBN 978-5-9693-0307-2, 978-0-06-230123-9, 978-59693-0330-0);

2. V.A. Afanasiev - Experimental development of spacecraft (Publisher: M .: Izd-vo MAI .; 1994; ISBN: 5-7035-0318-3);

3. V. Maksimovsky - “Angara-Baikal. ABOUT reusable booster rocket module»;

4. SpaceX official website - link ;

5. SpaceX Official YouTube Channel - link ;

6. Wikipedia entry - link.

Application

Appendix 1. Falcon 1.

Appendix 2. The evolutionary path of the Falcon launch vehicle.

Appendix 3. Falcon9 v1.0 (left) and v1.1 (right) engine layout.

Appendix 4. Falcon 9 versions 1.0 and 1.1.

Appendix 5. Location of engines in version 1.1.

Appendix 6. Falcon 9. Three types: with Dragon 1 spacecraft, Dragon 2 spacecraft and with PN radome.

Appendix 7. Falcon Heavy.

Appendix 8. The evolution of SpaceX launch vehicles.

Appendix 9. Merlin engine.

Appendix 10. Thrust comparison of Merlin 1, Vulcain, RS-25 and RD-108 engines.

Appendix 11. Merlin 1D thrust-to-weight ratio.

Appendix 12. Merlin 1D Vacuum.

Annex 13.

Annex 13.1.

Annex 14. Scheme of flight and landing of the rocket.

Annex 15 . MRU "Angara-Baikal"

Appendix 16. Dragon V1 spacecraft.

Appendix 17. Dragon V2 spacecraft.

Appendix 18. Big Falcon Rocket art concept.

- the heaviest lifting rocket to date - and perhaps the transportation revolution is closer than we think. We tell you how amazing the transport of the future can be.

Automobile

The cities of the future will become more and more . Cars on the roads will be less and less common - especially in large cities. Madrid, Copenhagen and Hamburg are adopting a policy to become as much as possible. But between cities, highways will become super-high-speed - Elon Musk has already built such a high-speed tunnel between Los Angeles and its suburb of Culver City. Cars will be able to move along it without traffic jams and at speeds up to 240 km/h.

The roads themselves will also change and, in addition to transport, will provide energy to settlements. Already in France there is one lined with solar panels: 2,800 square meters of solar panels have been laid out on a one-kilometer section of the road. The energy generated by the "solar road" will be enough to power all the street lights of the nearest village, and the company that completed the project believes that France can become energy independent if only 250,000 kilometers of roads are paved with solar panels.

Public transport

Public transport in the future will move away from fossil fuels and switch to renewable resources, which may be unfamiliar. London authorities are already running city buses on biofuel, which is partly made from coffee grounds. Coffee waste will be collected from factories, bars, coffee shops and restaurants across the city and then sent for recycling. The new fuel reduces the amount of harmful emissions by 10-15%. There is no shortage in it - the population of London annually "leaves" behind 200 thousand tons of coffee waste.

Oslo is not far behind London: from 2019 they will start traveling there. And by 2025, Norway plans to completely ban cars with internal combustion engines. The unmanned electric bus will accommodate 12 passengers and develops a speed of about 20 km/h. It will be possible to call the bus using a special mobile application. Waiting time - no more than 10 minutes.

The city buses of the future will be green not only in terms of fuel sources, but also in the literal sense - there will be gardens with living plants on the roofs of public transport. Such a project is already aimed at improving the environmental situation in the city and reducing harmful emissions into the air. Each garden will be built with a dedicated irrigation system and arranged in such a way that the plants can withstand constant movement.

Perhaps soon it will not be necessary to buy endless coupons and travel cards - it will be enough to put on a certain piece of clothing. In Berlin, for example, which are simultaneously travel cards for all modes of transport for a year.

For those who are not satisfied with either convenient public transport or bicycles in cities, flying taxis will be available in the future. Uber will launch flying taxis as early as 2020 in Texas and Dubai. Such a taxi will be a small light aircraft with an electric engine. The company plans to make the planes quieter so that they can be used within the city. Another similar transportation option (also in Dubai) is. The passenger drone will be able to carry people weighing less than 100 kilograms, its maximum speed will be 160 km/h, and it will be able to stay in the air for no more than 30 minutes and take its passengers to a maximum distance of 50 kilometers.

Train

Trains will be accelerating all the time, making strong competition for airplanes. In China, between Beijing and Shanghai, they have already launched. It can accelerate to 350 km/h and covers a distance of 1200 km in 4 hours and 28 minutes. This is an hour and a half faster than other trains.

But even more promising in the train business was Elon Musk's idea back in 2013, with a concept of a system of electric-powered trains that rush through low-pressure pipelines on an air or magnetic cushion. The vacuum train will be twice as fast as an airplane and three times as fast as a high-speed train, reaching a top speed of 1,200 km/h. Hyperloop has already shown, held and up to 310 kilometers per hour on a test track in Nevada. The nearest possible route will connect Abu Dhabi and Dubai in 2020.

In Germany, they also presented their own - it will have sports simulators, plasma TVs and negotiation compartments with soundproofing and tablets (as a competition - in Scotland). While some are concentrating on comfort, others are on technology: in the same Germany, they will launch by 2021. It will be an environmentally friendly and completely silent Coradia iLint passenger train, the first long-distance train in history that emits only steam and water condensate into the atmosphere. The hydrogen tank is located on the roof of the train and powers the fuel cell, which in turn generates electricity. Such a train can continuously travel 1000 km without refueling and reach speeds of up to 140 km/h.

And, of course, the trains of the future will run on energy from renewable sources. Already in the Netherlands, trains are 100% powered by wind power. An hour of operation of one wind turbine is enough for a train trip of 192 km. At the same time, by 2020, the Netherlands hopes to reduce the amount of energy needed to transport one passenger by another 35%.

Airplane

Airplanes seem to be the most familiar mode of transport for modern travelers, although not the most environmentally friendly due to too high CO2 emissions. However, there is already a plane flying on biofuel: in particular, the Qantas airliner is the first flight between the US and Australia using biofuel produced from a special variety of mustard. The aircraft was refueled with 24 tons of Brassica Carinata mustard biofuel. According to Qantas, this reduced carbon dioxide emissions per flight by 18 tons compared to using conventional kerosene.