The construction of aqueducts is often recognized as the main achievement of engineering in ancient Rome. It was these structures that performed the most important function of water supply to cities that consumed more and more water. But in a narrow sense, an aqueduct does not mean the entire water supply system, but only part of it, which is a crossing over rivers, ravines, and roads. And it is these parts of the complex water supply system that currently attract thousands of tourists. So today we'll look at Roman aqueducts.
History of Roman aqueducts
Construction of aqueducts began in Rome. The population of this city exceeded a million inhabitants, and there was a need to supply the city not only with water for drinking, but also for technical purposes. Here it is worth remembering the desire of the Romans to create widespread comfort and the abundant distribution of Roman thermal baths. Of course, it was possible to take water from wells, but the increase in consumption forced a direct supply of water from mountain sources.
The aqueduct in Rome appeared already in the 4th century BC, and by the 3rd century BC. there were already 11 of them here. In the 1st century AD, the famous Claudius aqueduct was built, which, with a height of 27 meters, was 30 km shorter than the old Marcius aqueduct (total length approximately 60 kilometers). The reduction in distance was achieved through the multiple use of a system of tunnels and bridges.
Aqueduct of Claudius
Pont du Gard in Nimes (France)
Another famous Roman aqueduct was built in the 2nd century AD in the south of France across the Garde River. Its modern name is Pont du Gard or Gard Bridge. The aqueduct provided water to the city of Nîmes. The bridge is the only surviving remnant of the complex system of the Nimes Aqueduct, which stretches for 50 kilometers. The height of the bridge is 49 meters, length - 275 meters. There are three arched levels. The first level consists of 6 arches. The central arch of this level, connecting the banks of the river, has a span of 24.4 meters. The second level already has 11 arches. The last third level, intended for the water pipe, has 35 smaller arches. Pont du Gard is currently used as a bridge crossing.
Pont du Gard
Roman aqueduct in Segovia (Spain)
The next aqueduct is located in the Spanish city of Segovia. The height of the aqueduct is 30 meters, length is 17 kilometers. One of the surviving spans is now located right in the city center. To ensure central water supply in the old days, water from this aqueduct entered the central tank, from where it was already distributed to other intra-city systems. In the 11th century, this aqueduct was partially destroyed by the Moors, but in the 15th century it was restored and still provides water supply to the regions of Segovia.
Aqueduct in Segovia
Roman aqueducts were built even in Africa. Water supply was provided by Caesaria (23 km aqueduct), Maktar (9 km), and Carthage (80 km).
As Julius Frontinus (Rome's chief water supplier at the beginning of the 2nd century) noted, aqueducts are the main evidence of the greatness of the Roman Empire, and they cannot even be compared with the useless Egyptian pyramids and other idle buildings of Greece. Indeed, these water supply systems gave impetus to the development of civilization and established the construction of baths, swimming pools, and fountains. And considering that some of these buildings from the times of the greatness of ancient Rome function to this day, one can only be amazed and enjoy their greatness and the genius of engineering of deep antiquity.
An aqueduct (from Latin - “to conduct water”) is an irrigation structure that performs several functions. First of all, this is a water supply system through which water is supplied to settlements. Then there is a complex irrigation system that allows you to bring water to dry fields with agricultural crops growing on them.
The first aqueducts appeared several thousand years ago in the Middle East. It is known for certain that already in the 7th century BC, limestone irrigation systems were present on the Assyrian lands, through the valleys of which they carried countless waters to the capital of the country, Nineveh. Total length The aqueduct was more than eighty kilometers.
Irrigation Ancient Rome was intended to saturate cities and industrial development sites with water. Local aqueducts were built on the territory of the Roman state for centuries: eleven water supply systems, more than three hundred and fifty kilometers long, led to the capital alone.
In ancient times, aqueducts were known to all civilizations without exception - they were used equally well by both the Mayan Indians and the ancient Greeks. In the Middle Ages, the Roman experience in building above-ground aqueducts was lost, and until late XIX centuries, irrigation systems gradually came to a standstill. The most famous aqueduct in Russia was built on the border of the 18th-19th centuries in the area of modern Moscow Mytishchi.
10 ancient aqueducts.
1. Tambomachay, Peru
Tambomachay (translated into Russian as “resort” or “resting place”) is one of the most ancient aqueducts, which at one time performed a cultural and religious rather than a practical function. The Peruvian water supply was built to irrigate the royal gardens, in which the rulers of the Inca civilization loved to relax. For a long time, Tambochay itself was a sacred relic of Peru - this building was dedicated to the cult of water. In its structure, the aqueduct was a complex system of canals and water cascades, gracefully flowing down gray rocks.
2. Aqueduct Park in Rome (Aqueduct Park), Italy
The Roman Aqueduct Park is a grandiose monument of ancient culture, consisting of seven (out of eleven) irrigation systems that have survived to this day. Passing through a picturesque valley stretching between the New Appian Way and Tuscolana, they, like many centuries ago, keep their path to the side. Thanks to them, the capital ancient Empire remained for centuries as one of the cleanest and most enlightened capitals in the world. Roman aqueducts saturated the city to such an extent that free citizens already in those distant times could afford to take baths, flush toilets and enjoy the beauty of numerous fountains.
3. Aqueducts in Caesarea (Caesarea Aqueduct), Israel
Aqueducts in Caesarea began to be built under the notorious Herod the Great. During his reign, in the newly built Mediterranean city, the first aqueduct with a total length of ten kilometers was built from Mount Carmel. The second “water pipeline” was made during the time of Emperor Hadrian, who considered that the expanded Caesarea was desperately short of drinking water. Both aqueducts ran parallel to each other and had the same length. To supply water to them, a special channel was cut into the rock. The beds of the aqueducts consisted of cement walls plastered on both the outer and inner sides of the canal.
4. Underground Nazca Aqueducts (Nazca Aqueducts or Cantalloc Aqueduct), Peru
The underground Nazca aqueducts were built by the South Peruvian Indians to provide their agricultural lands with sufficient irrigation water. They had a complex internal structure and were so large that a person of average height could easily enter them. The walls of the underground channels were reinforced with massive stone blocks, and the ceilings were covered with mesquite beams. The underground nature of the aqueducts prevented the evaporation of moisture in the hot Peruvian climate. Moreover, along the entire route of the water supply there were special openings through which one could go down into the aqueduct to clean it. Through them, excess moisture was removed from the Indian irrigation system to the earth's surface.
5. Aqueducts and canals in Hampi (Hampi Aqueducts), India
In Indian history, Hampi is known as the capital of the ancient, powerful Vijayanagar Empire. From the city built in the 14th century, many majestic architectural and communication structures, including various aqueducts, have survived to this day. In those distant times, Indian water pipes were used to water banana plantations. By the way, both work quite well in Hampi today. In addition to irrigation, aqueducts and canals in Hampi, taking water from the surrounding mountains, were also used to fill special stone bathtubs intended for ablution.
6. Aqueduct in Merida (Acueducto de los Milagros), Spain
The Spanish aqueduct in Merida is known as Los Milagros, which translated into Russian means “Aqueduct of Miracles”. Built from three extremely durable materials - granite, concrete and brick - it was two hundred and twenty-seven meters long and rose twenty-five meters above the ground. Los Milagros has survived to this day in a dilapidated state, which, however, does not prevent one from appreciating its architectural attractiveness. The granite pillars of the aqueduct contained red brick inserts. The last to be laid out were the semicircles of the arches of the irrigation structure. There is a version that such an architectural concept formed the basis of the Arab Cordoba mosque.
7. Aqueduct de las Ferreres (Les Ferreres Aqueduct), Spain
The Aqueduct de las Ferreres or "Devil's Bridge" was built from stone blocks in the 1st century BC to provide water to the ancient Roman city of Taracco. Water was supplied to it from two rivers - Gaia and Francoli. Collected in the Rowrey area, it was distributed through smaller canals and aqueducts leading to de las Ferreres. The Spanish "Devil's Bridge" is architectural structure, with a total length of two hundred and seventeen and a height of twenty-six meters. The structure of two arches (eleven at the bottom and twenty-five at the top) contained water supply on its upper tier. The Aqueduct de las Ferreres is one of the most fully extant European aqueducts.
The Turkish Valens Aqueduct was built in the 4th century AD from stones that previously formed the basis of the famous ancient Greek city of Chalcedon. Situated between two hills, it provided water to Constantinople, now known as Istanbul. The total length of Valens was one thousand meters, the height of the aqueduct at its maximum point was twenty-six meters. Valenta was the functioning water supply system of Istanbul until the 19th century. Today, the Valens Aqueduct is an important cultural landmark of Istanbul. It is located in the old part of the city, above Ataturk Boulevard.
The Segovia aqueduct is known as the longest surviving Western European aqueduct. Its total length is eight hundred and eighteen, and its height is highest point- twenty-nine meters. More than twenty thousand granite slabs were used in the construction of the aqueduct. Moreover, the structure itself is just a ground-based component of a much more complex and long (many kilometers) water supply system. The exact date of construction of the aqueduct is unknown, but historians believe that it was built during the reign of Emperor Vespasian or Nerva, in the 1st century BC. In 1985, the aqueduct in Segovia was included in.
The Pont du Gard aqueduct or “Bridge over the Gard” is known as the highest of all ancient Roman aqueducts that have survived to this day. At its highest point it reaches a height of forty-seven meters, which is twice the average classical height of ancient European aqueducts. The Pont du Gard was built in the 1st century AD to supply water to the city of Neem. The architectural design of the aqueduct consists of three tiers: at the bottom of the structure there are six large ones, in the middle - eleven medium ones and at the top - thirty-five small arches.
The term “aqueduct” came to us from the Latin language (aguae ductus) and translated means “leading water” (agua - water, duco - leading). What is an aqueduct in the modern Russian understanding? This is a structure for passing water flows at a considerable height through rough terrain, including obstacles of natural and man-made origin.
An aqueduct is used to provide water to populated areas, industrial production or agricultural land from a distant water source located on a hill. The principle of operation of an aqueduct is the free supply of water through a gutter, ditch, or pipe at a slight slope. Thus, physical laws are used that make it possible to move huge flows of water through artificially created channels without additional effort.
From the history of aqueducts
The history of aqueducts dates back to the ancient Babylonians and Egyptians, who learned to build conduits to supply their homes with water by observing the natural flow of rivers - from higher ground to lower ground.
Back in the 7th century BC. The Assyrians built a limestone aqueduct to provide water to their capital, Nineveh. The source was separated from the capital by a wide valley. The length of the conduit was 80 kilometers, and its three-hundred-meter section above the valley reached a ten-meter height.
History has preserved information about aqueducts that were built by the Mayan tribes and the ancient Greeks. The ancient Greek traveler, geographer and historian Herodotus praised the aqueduct on the island of Samos as one of the wonders of the world.
The aqueducts built by the ancient Romans differed significantly from the first structures in their technology; already in those days, water-resistant materials such as pozzolanic concrete were used for their construction.
The best architects took part in the construction of aqueducts, making complex, precise calculations. For example, the Pont du Gard aqueduct in Provence had a difference in height between source and destination of only 17 meters. Moreover, its total length was 50 kilometers, and for each kilometer the slope was only 34 centimeters. Such precision and the best construction technologies ensured Roman aqueducts were successfully used for many centuries - even a thousand years after the collapse of the Roman Empire, aqueducts did not lose their technological significance.
In some cases, during the construction of aqueducts, the surface drop was over 50 meters. In order to ensure the free passage of water flow, the builders created an additional pressure conduit (drain). These technologies are still used today, when when laying water pipelines it is necessary to cross places with significant depressions.
Modern uses of aqueducts
In the modern understanding, the definition of what an aqueduct is is to describe a structure designed to move large flows of water above ground. Considering the high cost of constructing and maintaining aqueducts compared to underground water pipelines, today their construction is justified only in densely populated mountainous countries, mainly where laying an underground water pipeline is associated with certain difficulties.
However, a number of countries operate aqueducts designed to allow ships to pass over a riverbed or over a valley. These bridge structures allow the connection of canal systems that small vessels can pass through. Their construction began in the 17th century, and some of them are still successfully operating today.
The most famous modern water bridges for shipping are:
Magdeburg Navigable Aqueduct (Germany, 2003) 918 meters long, laid above the surface of the earth across the Elbe River and connecting the Elbe-Havel and Mitteland canals. 
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, Wrexham (Great Britain, 1795-1805). The water bridge was built in the Dee Valley to connect the Denbighshire coal mines to the national shipping canals via the Ellesmere Canal. 
Swing water bridge, Barton (UK). It was built on the River Irwell and was designed to carry the Bridgewater Canal across the Manchester Ship. The rotating aqueduct was built in 1894 and has no analogues in the whole world. 
Aqueduct (from Latin aqua - water and ducere - news) is a water conduit (channel, pipe) for supplying water to populated areas, irrigation and hydropower systems from sources located above them.
An aqueduct in a narrower sense is a part of a water conduit in the form of a bridge over a ravine, river, or road. Aqueducts that were wide enough could also be used by ships. An aqueduct is similar in structure to a viaduct, with the difference that it is used to carry water instead of organizing a road or railroad track.
Aqueducts are constructed of stone, brick, reinforced concrete or steel. Such structures consist of a base on which stone, cast iron or brick supports are erected (usually stone arches are placed between them for stability), and a coastal abutment on which pipes are laid or ditches are arranged.
Story
Pont du Gard, France, an ancient Roman aqueduct that has survived to this day, one of the most visited tourist places in France
Although aqueducts are most associated with the Romans, they were invented centuries earlier in the Middle East, where the Babylonians and Egyptians built complex irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century BC. BC, when the Assyrians built a limestone aqueduct 10 meters high and 300 meters long to carry water across the valley to their capital, Nineveh; the total length of the aqueduct was 80 kilometers.
The Romans built numerous aqueducts to transport water to cities and towns. industrial places. The city of Rome itself was supplied with water through 11 aqueducts, which were built over 500 years and had a total length of almost 350 kilometers. However, only 47 kilometers of them were above ground: most were underground (the Eifel Aqueduct in Germany is a very well-preserved example of this). The longest Roman aqueduct was built in the 2nd century AD to supply water to Carthage (now this place is located in modern Tunisia), its length was 141 kilometers.
During construction, advanced building materials were used, such as waterproof pozzolanic concrete.
Roman aqueducts were extremely complex structures, technologically they were not obsolete even 1000 years after the fall of the Roman Empire. They were built with remarkable precision: the Pont du Gard aqueduct in Provence had a slope of only 34 cm per kilometer (1:3000), descending only 17 meters vertically over its entire length of 50 kilometers.
Transporting water by gravity alone was very efficient: 20,000 cubic meters of water per day passed through the Pont du Gard. Sometimes, when crossing surface depressions with a difference of more than 50 meters, pressure water pipelines were created - siphons (although almost always the insides of bridges were used for these purposes). Modern hydraulic engineering uses similar techniques to allow sewers and water pipes to cross various depressions.
Much of the Roman engineering experience was lost during the Dark Wars, and aqueduct construction virtually ceased in Europe until the 19th century. Water was often obtained by digging wells, although this could cause health problems when the local water supply became polluted.
One notable exception was the New River, an artificial waterway in England, opened in 1613 to supply London with fresh drinking water. Its length was 62 kilometers. The development of canals gave a new impetus to the construction of aqueducts. However, it was only in the 19th century that their construction resumed on a large scale to supply water to rapidly growing cities and industrial sites in need of water. Developments of new materials (such as concrete and cast iron) and new technologies (such as steam engine) allowed for many significant improvements. For example, cast iron allowed the construction of large siphons loaded with greater pressure, and the creation of steam-powered pumps made it possible to significantly increase the speed and volume of water flow.
In the 19th century, England became a leading power in the construction of aqueducts, providing water to its largest cities such as Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool. The largest aqueducts were built in the United States to supply water to the largest cities in that country. The Catskill Aqueduct carried water to New York City a distance of 120 miles (120 miles), but this achievement was eclipsed by aqueducts in the far west of the country, most notably the Colorado River Aqueduct, which supplied water to Los Angeles and the surrounding area from 400 miles to the east. Although such aqueducts are undoubtedly great technical achievements, the enormous amount of water they carried led to serious environmental damage resulting from the depletion of rivers.
Use of water in the Roman Empire
The province of Syria was under Roman rule for more than seven centuries - from 64 BC. e. up to 637. This province was conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century. IN Peaceful time The Romans wasted enormous amounts of water. In the capital alone there were thousands of fountains, drinking water drains, baths and other water consumers. Wealthy senators swam in their own pools and built small fountains in their gardens. Therefore, 500 liters of water were consumed per person every day (today in Europe the average person uses about 125 liters). It was Roman engineers who came up with standard lead pipes, high arched aqueducts and pipelines designed for a pressure of 15 atmospheres.
However, when, shortly before the birth of Christ, the Roman legions came to the barren lands of Palestine, they had to abandon their habits, at least for a while. The conquered territory turned out to be too dry and there was not enough water. But this obstacle did not stop the conquerors. They soon figured out how to solve the problem they faced. In the former Roman province of Syria (now the territory of Jordan), German scientists have been studying a huge system of artificial canals for several years. Part of the Roman pipeline is underground, and the length of these tunnels is 106 km.
Underground aqueduct
The tunnel was discovered in 2004 by Mathias Döring, a professor of fluid mechanics at the Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences (Germany). Studying ancient aqueduct still lasts. Moreover, scientists have only recently been able to outline the history of the creation of a giant water pipeline. Local residents, who called the aqueduct Qanat Firaun - "Pharaoh's Canal", believed that gold was hidden in the tunnels dug at a depth of up to 80 m. Dering was the first to realize that the aqueduct had Roman roots. The water pipeline began at a swamp in Syria, which had long been dried up: it ran 64 km on the surface and then disappeared underground three times in tunnels 1, 11 and 94 km long. Previously, scientists considered the longest underwater channel Ancient world aqueduct in Bologna, which was 19 km long.
Aqueduct construction methods
The aqueduct tunnels are plastered with waterproof lime mortar, Greek inscriptions are preserved on the walls, and entire colonies of bats live under the ceiling. “Sometimes we even had to interrupt work because people in the caves did not have enough oxygen,” said the project manager.
Decapolis Cities
A group of ten cities located on the eastern border of the Roman Empire (modern Jordan, Israel and Syria). These cities did not represent an official league or political union, but they were united by a common language, culture, geographical location and political status. The cities of Decapolis were at the center of regions where Semitic culture flourished. Nabataeans, Arameans and Jews lived here. Each city had some autonomy and self-government. The names of these ten cities are known thanks to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder. According to other sources, the Decapolis consisted of 18-19 cities. The aqueduct was most likely built by legionnaires. The soldiers hollowed out long corridors and lifted more than 600 thousand cubic meters to the surface. m of stones (as an equivalent, this volume can be compared with one quarter of the Cheops pyramid). This colossal water supply project provided water supplies for the city of Decapolis. The aqueduct ended in Gadara, a city with a population of 50 thousand people.
The Rise of the Roman Empire and the City of Gadara
Doering and his students conducted research using a theodolite, a surveying instrument that measures horizontal and vertical angles, and GPS instruments. Scientists were looking for new entrances leading to this underground tunnel. In the end, the researchers were able to determine that the construction of underground communications began in 90 AD. e. At that time, Rome was ruled by Emperor Domitian (81−96), and the empire was in its heyday. The Roman aristocrat Sextus Julius Frontinus (40−103) supervised the construction of nine stone aqueducts in Eternal City and introduced some technical innovations into use. The Levant was also booming thanks to trade with eastern countries. Tigers were brought to Rome, a tame lion walked around Domitian's throne, rich senators bought Indian spices and wore clothes made of Chinese silk. Anyone could afford incense or slaves from Arabia. Trade routes across the deserts flourished during this period. Many caravans approached the gates of Gadara, which over time became big city. The Romans built two theaters there and even planned a temple of nymphs with fountains and a 22-meter-long pool.
Water shortage and difficulties in building an aqueduct
However, local sources were scarce, so the region soon began to suffer from water shortages. The city administration was forced to urgently take some measures. In a remote region of Syria, the Romans found a river from which they began building a water pipeline made of Roman concrete (Latin opus caementicium).
The channel was covered with slabs from above to protect it from animals, birds and dirt. In addition, in complete darkness, no algae grew in the canal. The first city through which the water supply passed was Adraa. But then the path to the canal was blocked by the mountainous regions of North Jordan. The first serious obstacle for Roman engineers was the wide Wadi al-Shalal gorge, 200 m deep. The Romans could not build a bridge across such a chasm. But nevertheless, they found a way out of this situation.
The aqueduct near the gorge turns sharply to the left and runs along the mountainous region to the south. When the unevenness of the landscape made it impossible to lay an aqueduct on the surface, the Romans began to cut an underground channel through the rock, the length of which was 11 km. So the engineers got to the place where the gorge became much narrower, and where they were able to build a bridge. The bridge itself has not survived to this day, but the stone blocks from which it was built still rest at the bottom of the gorge. However, after the gorge the road became even more difficult - hills and steep descents constantly appeared on the way. The Romans had already encountered similar problems near Carthage, so they built an arched stone aqueduct 19 km long.
Underground construction
Then they decided to build the canal underground - thanks to this decision, the Romans did not need to build bridges over ravines and gorges. The builders simply hollowed out tunnels underground. However, here too serious difficulties arose. In antiquity, people did not yet know the compass. Therefore, they could not navigate underground and know exactly where to build the tunnel next and how to ensure sufficient ventilation of the underground channel. Having broken through just a few meters, the workers could not breathe normally - the entire passage was filled with a thick curtain of dust during construction. In addition, in the tunnel, whose height was on average 2.5 m and width 1.5 m, only four legionnaires could work at a time. And four people advanced only 10 cm per day. If the work had proceeded at this pace, the Romans could still be digging a tunnel to Gadara.
Mine system
Surveyors, engineers, and miners made the short journey east and found solutions to these problems. Doering is confident that he was able to understand exactly how the ancient builders worked. “We found many indications that engineers first mapped out the path of the water pipeline on the surface, and then after some distance, from 20 to 200 meters, they built inclined shafts to the underground channel.” Fresh air also penetrated down through these shafts. But most importantly, this method allowed hundreds of people to work simultaneously, connecting sections of the canal to each other, moving towards each other. The legionnaires worked mainly with a sharpened chisel, illuminating the tunnel with oil lamps.
Research by modern scientists
Today, old mines allow scientists to determine the location of an ancient underground water supply. “Almost all service entrances were sealed to prevent animals from falling into the mines. Some shafts were filled in or filled with construction debris,” Doering explained. And in one of the mines, scientists found chicken bones. Descent into the mines is still somewhat difficult - scientists are forced to use climbing equipment. The stairs go deep at an angle of 50°, and over time the steps became overgrown with moss and became too slippery to simply go down. The tunnel itself is completely dark, and sometimes researchers lack air. The passages are blocked by fragments of blocks; rainwater collects in such places, sometimes reaching almost to the waist.
Mysteries of the aqueduct
Today, scientists have already found about 300 mines. But they still have many questions that researchers still haven't been able to answer. “For example, during the first 60 kilometers the slope of the underground canal is only 0.3 per thousand centimeters,” explained the head of the project. That is, over 1 km the tunnel drops by only 30 cm - this is very little. The Romans did not have a level; they used a six-meter instrument called a horobat, which they borrowed from the Persians. They also filled goat guts with water to calculate the slope at the corners of the structure. However, the existence of these primitive tools does not explain the amazing precision with which the aqueduct was built.
“First, surveyors had to calculate the exact multi-kilometer route of the aqueduct and mark this path with pillars,” Doering noted. Even this was extremely difficult to do in the uneven terrain. Then they had to repeat this path deep underground, down to the last centimeter. But how exactly did they manage to do this with such high accuracy? It was impossible to build an aqueduct directly under the intended line, since the shafts went deep not vertically, but at an angle. It is surprising why Roman builders did not make serious mistakes. In order to meet underground and connect the tunnel sections, the legionnaires had to know exactly which way to dig. But the only way of communication between construction sections could only be by knocking. The workers were chiseling the stone, focusing on this sound, but they could easily have taken it to the side - then the tunnel would have had a zigzag appearance. But all the tunnels are absolutely straight.
Construction result
It took Roman engineers 120 years to complete the aqueduct. Only after this the underground and above-ground canals were filled with water from a distant Syrian river. Researchers studied mineral deposits on the walls of the tunnels and concluded that the water flowed at a speed of 300 to 700 liters per second.
However, the residents of Gadar were disappointed. Initially, it was believed that the water would be collected in a high stone reservoir that could supply the city's fountains and the planned temple. But that did not happen. Apparently, surveyors and engineers made a number of serious mistakes. And the water, having covered 170 km of travel, arrived in the city too slowly to make the great plans of the Romans possible. The reservoir was not completely filled, and the fountains in the city never started working. According to Doering, this water supply hides many more mysteries. Therefore, the scientist and his team will continue researching the aqueduct starting in April 2009.
Chapter “Aqueducts” of the subsection “Architecture of the Roman Republic” of the section “Architecture of Ancient Rome” from the book “General History of Architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome)” edited by B.P. Mikhailova.
If bridges as a type of road structures are developing along with the development of transport further in all countries, then aqueducts, if we talk about their overhead structures, i.e. substructures and arcades, are a typically Roman, and, moreover, exceptional phenomenon. Underground water pipelines in channels in pipes made of stone or ceramics were widely used both in ancient Greece both in the countries of the ancient East and at a later time. However, water canals made of concrete and stone, raised above the ground and placed on pillars with arches, appeared only among the Romans and, in essence, if we do not talk about restorations, were typical only of ancient Rome. Despite the fact that the Greeks already had pressure water pipes in pipes and even siphons, the Romans developed a type of gravitational water pipe with a free mirror of the water flow, enclosed in a large rectangular section a channel covered on top by a vaulted structure or a flat stone slab. The canal placed on the arcade was a serious engineering structure, reaching in some places up to 50 m in height (the Nemauza aqueduct, modern Nimes - Gardsky Bridge).
Aqueduct routes sometimes exceeded a hundred kilometers in length, and the oldest ones were almost entirely underground.
During the Republican era, four aqueducts were built in Rome: in 312 BC. - Aqua Appia, in 272 BC - Anio Vetus, in 144 BC - Aqua Marcia, in 125 BC - Aqua Tepula. The latter was radically redesigned during the time of Augustus. Among them, only the Marcius aqueduct had arcades, the remains of which remain to this day.
Each aqueduct consisted of a water intake system, a canal (specus) through which water flowed from the source to the city, settling tanks and a water distribution system within Rome, and finally, a water supply network of lead pipes supplying water directly to homes and consumers.
The oldest of the Roman aqueducts, Aqua Appia, was entirely underground and practically no different from the Greek ones. It had a relatively short length (16.617 km) and its channel was either cut out of the rock, or, if the soil was soft, a trench was dug in the ground, in which an artificial channel was made of stone slabs, covered on top with a stone vault, and on the inside with waterproof coating. Only a small section of the canal, about 90 m long, is raised on substructure.
Although the length of the second aqueduct - Anio Vetus - was much greater (63.7 km), the principles of its construction remained the same - only a very small part of the canal (400 m) was placed on substructure. A significant part of its length fell on the bends of the route, since the builders tried as much as possible to avoid the construction of bridges and tunnels.
Only more than 100 years later, the third Roman aqueduct was built - Aqua Marcia - one of the largest and most powerful aqueducts in Rome (Fig. 53). Its total length reached 91.3 km.
The aqueduct of Marcius (144 BC) was both technical and architectural masterpiece. The water in it had a pleasant taste and purity, so it was intended, unlike the water of other aqueducts, only for drinking. The Marcius Aqueduct was built by the hands of an army of slaves taken from two newly destroyed cities - Corinth and Carthage. There is evidence to believe that Greek master builders and architects participated in the aqueduct project, as well as in its construction. This conclusion is suggested by the unusually finely developed system of proportions of arcades and bridges, where the use of the golden section is noticeable. The canal of the Marcius Aqueduct, emerging from the ground at a distance of 10 km from Rome, was placed on a stone arcade, in some places exceeding 10 m in height.
For the first time, such a significant part of the canal was raised on substructure, so water also flowed to the elevated parts of the city. In addition, the substructures themselves acquired a new character - a system of arches, previously used only for the construction of bridges, was used here for the first time. In the Aqueduct of Marcius, a constructive scheme for this type of structure was developed, which then spread throughout the Roman Empire. The creation of such a grandiose structure (the arcade near Rome alone had more than 1000 arches) made it possible to perfect the designs and methods of constructing arcades, and to find the most perfect proportions of individual arches and the arcade as a whole.
Compared to previous and subsequent aqueducts, the working technique here is the highest. The arcades and the channel itself are made of local strong tuff in regular square masonry. The above-ground parts of the canal, depending on the topography, had a different structure: 1) a canal laid on a solid wall (at the very exit from the ground); 2) a channel laid on a low arcade, where the heels of the arches lie directly on the foundation; 3) a channel placed on an arcade of medium height, with a total height of the structure of up to 8 m; 4) a channel placed on a high arcade, with a total height of the structure of up to 12 m; 5) a channel placed on special arches, above the intersection of roads, at the point of joining the city arcade, etc. The fourth option was typical.
With all the variety of arcade options, they are united by some common principles that create a single image of the entire structure. The most important of these principles is to clearly identify the design. Semicircular arches rest freely on the pillars and recede somewhat inward, which creates a clear boundary between the pillar and the arch. The protruding slabs of the canal bottom separate the canal itself from the arched structure that supports it. The entire structure is completed by another continuous strip of floor slabs.
In order for the aqueduct arcade, consisting of identical elements stretching for kilometers, to have not only engineering, but also artistic value, special attention was required to the development of proportions. A study of the proportions of the arcade of the Marcius Aqueduct shows that the proportionality of the entire structure was achieved both by introducing a module and by using the “golden section”. The channel width taken as a module is 0.76 m, i.e. 2.5 Roman feet. All other dimensions are multiples of it (both plan and façade). The same size was taken as the initial one for the “golden ratio”. The builders followed the rule of the “golden ratio” both in solving the details and in solving the main element of the arcade - the section, where this rule determined the ratio of the diameter of the arch to the width of the column, equal to 1: 0.618, giving harmony to the entire section. Unlike later aqueducts, in the arcade of Acqua Marzia one cannot yet see axial proportioning, i.e. dismemberment of the figure along the axes of the pillars. The unity of the figure, united by a circle with a radius of half the height, captures exactly two pillars and one span of the arch; at the same time this is the height of the entire arcade.
The arcade blended well with the landscape of the outskirts of Rome. The slight bends of the route, fluctuations in the lower elevations, inevitable with hilly terrain, and the rich greenery that served as the background created a very picturesque picture of the aqueduct. At the same time, a clear arcade stretching for kilometers gave the suburban landscape completeness, that spirit of civilized, “cultivated” nature that the Romans so valued.
