Gross domestic product and external. Gross domestic product. Country ranking by per capita

There are three shortcomings that were inherent in the GP indicator. Firstly, it involved repeated counting of materials and raw materials. In a system of deep social division of labor, raw materials such as metals and oil were counted more than 10 times as the product moved to the consumer. Secondly, the GP did not take into account the services produced in various spheres of public life, the results of spiritual, non-material production in general. Meanwhile, it is quite obvious that in a modern industrial society the role of the services of a doctor, scientist, lawyer, manager, as well as information in general is extremely great, and in the future, post-industrial society, they will acquire exceptional importance. Thirdly, the GP was neutral and indifferent to external economic relations, the role and importance of which in the modern world is also increasing on the basis of the deepening international division of labor.

To eliminate the first drawback, domestic statistics introduced a new indicator - the final social product (FSP), which was a set of material goods created by society over a certain period, but excluded the repeated counting of materials (intermediate product). In other words, the CPC united the totality of material goods entering final consumption, both personal and industrial. Thus, in the USSR in 1990, the GPPA in actual prices was 1631.6 billion rubles, and the COP was approximately equal to 1061.9 billion rubles, i.e. accounted for approximately 65% of the value of VOP 1. However, two other shortcomings (services and foreign economic relations were not taken into account) were also characteristic of the final social product.

In this regard, Russian and world statistics were forced to take into account the fact that the real content of the annual result of social reproduction has changed and that the GP and COP no longer sufficiently reflect the results of production. It has become obvious that in a modern economy it is fundamentally important to take into account the results of not only material, but also intangible production, and above all, services. At the same time, another aspect of the problem was no less important: it was necessary to take into account not only the overall result of the production of material goods and services, but also the final result of the production of material goods and services.

Modern economic science defines the annual social product as the totality of final goods and services expressed in market prices and excluding the repeated counting of goods that are embodied in the intermediate product. At the same time, the structure of a GP includes four main elements:

costs of use, i.e. types of annual material costs for the acquisition, maintenance and improvement of fixed assets, as well as costs for tangible working capital, work in progress and intangible assets;

factor costs, which are paid for the use of factors of production (wages, interest, rent);

additional costs as a result of capital depreciation as a result of obsolescence;

income of entrepreneurs, i.e. profit.

Thus, modern world statistics proceed from the fact that the gross social product takes into account not only material goods, but also all types of services, and takes them into account in market terms - as final goods and services.

Modern economic science has resolved another important problem - taking into account global economic relations in the overall indicators of social reproduction. The American economist Simon Kuznets (1901-1985), the founder of the modern theory of economic growth, proposed for these purposes the use of two new indicators - gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP), which eliminated all the above-mentioned shortcomings of the GNP, taken in its previous content (as a set of material goods created at the macro level).

4. Essence and structure of GDP and GNP

Gross domestic product is the totality of final goods and services created within a given country by both domestic and foreign firms, but using only that country's factors of production.

The commonality between GDP and GNP is that both indicators take into account the total annual value of final goods and services, but they take them into account in different ways. GDP and GNP, as it were, clarify the indicator of the annual social product in relation to a particular country, taking into account its place in the international division of labor.

The difference between GDP and GNP is that GDP is calculated on a territorial basis, because the total cost of final goods and services created in the territory of a given country is taken into account, regardless of the nationality of enterprises, while GNP is calculated on a national basis, because it is taken into account the total cost of final goods and services of only national enterprises is taken, regardless of their location - in their own country or abroad.

In modern economic literature, there are three ways to measure GDP:

a) method of calculation based on income, or distribution method;

b) the method of calculation based on expenses, or the method of final use of income;

c) the method of calculation based on added value, or the production method.

When calculating GDP by income, the following are summed up:

all types of factor income (wages, interest and rent);

net profit of entrepreneurs, i.e. dividends and retained earnings;

three components that are not income (depreciation, or the amount of capital consumed, indirect business taxes and corporate income taxes).

When calculating GDP by expenses, the expenses of all economic agents that use GDP are summed up. These total costs include four main components:

personal consumption expenditures, i.e. household expenses for the purchase of durable goods and current consumption, for services (this does not include expenses for the purchase of housing);

gross investment, i.e. investments in fixed production assets, investments in housing construction, investments in inventories (these gross investments are the sum of depreciation and net investments);

government procurement of goods and services, i.e. expenses for the maintenance of the army, the state administrative apparatus, for the maintenance of schools, institutes, health authorities, etc.;

net exports of goods and services abroad, calculated as the difference between exports and imports. Net exports can be positive if exports exceed imports, and negative if imports exceed exports. In the latter case, the country finds itself in the position of a debtor.

Expenditures on housing construction are classified as investments regardless of who made them - households, firms or the state. All other expenses are strictly linked to the type of buyer: if the car was purchased by a household, these expenses are classified as personal consumption; if the car was purchased by the state for use in the army or police. Then these expenses are classified as government consumption.

When calculating GDP using the production method, the added value of all enterprises in all sectors of the economy of a given country is summed up. Value added is the difference between the company's sold products and the cost of intermediate products (raw materials, supplies, services) purchased from supplier companies. A situation arises when each enterprise buys an intermediate product from the previous one and adds its own new value to it, which is precisely added value.

All three methods of calculating GDP take into account only final goods and services and exclude intermediate goods and services. GDP does not include the cost of purchasing goods that were produced in previous years (for example, buying a house built three years ago).

The three calculation methods discussed can be applied to GDP. It should, however, be remembered that qualitatively these are different concepts and that quantitatively they, as a rule, do not coincide. If country A has its national enterprises abroad, but does not have foreign enterprises and firms in its country, then it is obvious that in this country GNP will quantitatively exceed GDP. If country B, on the contrary, does not have its own national enterprises abroad, but foreign firms are located on its territory, then it is obvious that in this country the GNP will be quantitatively less than the GDP. We can conclude that in capital exporting countries, GNP is greater than GDP by the amount of the balance of profits from foreign investments. In capital importing countries, GNP is less than GDP by the same amount.

Quantitative and qualitative differences between GDP and GNP are also reflected in the ways these macroeconomic indicators are measured. When calculating GDP and GNP by income, the relationship between these indicators is expressed as follows:

GDP=GNP minus net factor income from abroad;

GNP=GDP plus net factor income from abroad.

In this case, net factor income from abroad is equal to the difference between the income received by citizens of a given country abroad and the income of foreigners received in the territory of this country. When calculating GDP and GNP by expenditure, special consideration is given to the expenditures of foreigners (expenses on our exports) and the net export of goods and services abroad, i.e. difference between exports and imports. When calculating GDP and GNP using the production method, the added value of foreign firms is especially taken into account.

In conditions of inflation, the real values of GDP and GNP are significantly less than the nominal values of these macroeconomic indicators. When the general price level falls, the deflator is less than one. But in both cases:

they do not consider self-care outcomes; the work of housewives, repairs of apartments and cars by the owners themselves are not reflected in the company’s reports, because they bypass the market;

they do not take into account the results of the shadow economy, which are based on illegal transactions;

they do not reflect the results of environmental pollution, and environmental factors in general are not taken into account;

they do not take into account the effect of leisure time. A person cannot live only by work and only for work. In real life, work is needed only in order to live;

they do not take into account other non-market factors of well-being (life expectancy, level of education, culture, intellectual potential);

the public sector of all types of services is accounted for by inputs, not by outputs.

To correct the first drawback, the net national product (NNP) indicator is used. In this case, NNP = GNP - depreciation and unit account of materials. If indirect taxes are subtracted from the net national product, society receives national income (NI).

Quantitatively, NNP and ND are indicators very close to each other. In modern Western literature, national income is defined as the sum of wages, interest, rent and profit. In other words, ND is the entire net and labor income of the entire society as a whole.

Modern statistics at the macroeconomic level are based on the system of national accounts. The essence of this system comes down to the formation of general indicators of economic development at various stages of the reproduction process. From this point of view, ND includes four elements:

consumption,

investments,

government spending,

net exports.

Each of them represents a special and at the same time interdependent sector of the economy, which together forms the national income.

A distinction is made between produced and used ND. The latter is less than the former due to losses from natural disasters and other types of damage. In the process of distribution, ND is divided into a consumption fund and an accumulation fund in accordance with the nature of their use.

In world practice, the indicator of net economic welfare (NEW) is also used. At the same time, CHEB=GNP+self-service+free time±shadow economy-environmental pollution.

Finally, when analyzing the results of reproduction at the macro level, one should take into account not only the results within a short period (a year, 2-5 years), but also long-term results. These latter are reflected by the indicator of national wealth (NW). National wealth is the value of all material and intangible goods and services created by a given society over the entire previous history and preserved to the present day. In other words, the national library is everything that a given nation currently possesses: all the material, intangible, spiritual, information wealth of society and the country.

The main elements of the material form of national wealth are:

fixed production assets;

working production assets;

non-productive fixed and working capital;

personal property of the population;

natural resources that have been explored and accounted for;

society's reserves and insurance fund in case of natural disasters, war and other unforeseen disasters.

The main elements of the intangible form of national wealth are:

educational and qualification potential of society;

achievements of domestic science;

accumulated values of national culture and art;

the spiritual wealth of society, its moral values.

In Russia, many elements of national wealth are not reflected in statistics: the cost of land, mineral resources, forests, works of art, etc. At the same time, in the 21st century, in the era of post-industrial development, the task of taking into account all material, as well as intangible forms of national wealth, is acquiring exceptional importance, because not material, but spiritual, informational benefits and services.

Due to the fact that a number of the above-mentioned elements of national wealth, both tangible and intangible forms, are not taken into account in Russia by value, our domestic statistics practically record only three main elements of the national wealth: these are fixed assets, including unfinished construction; tangible assets and household property. Thus, at the beginning of 2001, without taking into account the cost of land, subsoil and forests, as well as without taking into account all intangible forms, the national wealth of Russia amounted to 22,112,864 million rubles, of which fixed assets, including unfinished construction, amounted to

18,402,391 million rubles, material current assets – 1,763,342 million rubles. and household property – 1,947,131 million rubles. 1 .

contraction of the money supply), as well as household property (the result of a deterioration in the standard of living of the people).

Conclusion

This paper examined the basic concepts of GDP and methods for calculating them. Analysis of GDP development, what factors influenced it, what industries are the main ones and have a development trend, etc. Thus, GDP is an indicator of the system of national accounts that characterizes the value of final goods and services produced by residents of the country for a given period. GDP is used to characterize the results of production, the level of economic development, the rate of economic growth, analyze labor productivity in the economy, and so on.

There are also three methods for calculating GDP:

GDP - as the sum of gross value added

GDP - as the sum of final use components

GDP - as the sum of primary income

Bibliography

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Tyomny Yu.V., Tyomnaya L.R. Economy of tourism: Textbook.-M.: Soviet sport, 2003.-416 p.

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Economy. Textbook, 3rd ed., revised. and additional / Ed. Doctor of Economics science prof. A.S. Bulatova.-M.: Yurist, 2001.-896 p.

Economic theory: Textbook/ Ed. Ed. acad. IN AND. Vidyapina, A.I. Dobrynina, G.P. Zhuravleva, L.S. Tarasevich.-M.: Infra-M, 2001.-714p.

Gross interior product as the main indicator of the Russian economy
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Gross interior product and methods his measurements
Coursework >> Economics
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The results of the reproduction process at the macroeconomic level have a more complex structure in comparison with the results of this process at the micro level.

For a long time, the indicator of gross social product (GSP) was widely used in our country; in the literature it was often called the total social product (SOP).

The gross social product was the totality of all material goods created in a country during a certain period (usually a year).

To eliminate the first drawback, domestic statistics introduced a new indicator - the final social product (FSP), which was a set of material goods created by society over a certain period, but excluded the repeated counting of materials (intermediate product). In other words, the CPC united the totality of material goods entering final consumption, both personal and industrial. Thus, in the USSR in 1990, the GPPA in actual prices was 1631.6 billion rubles, and the COP was approximately equal to 1061.9 billion rubles, i.e. accounted for approximately 65% of the VOP value. However, two other shortcomings (services and foreign economic relations were not taken into account) were also characteristic of the final social product.

factor costs, which are paid for the use of factors of production (wages, interest, rent);

additional costs as a result of capital depreciation as a result of obsolescence;

income of entrepreneurs, i.e. profit.

Gross domestic product is the totality of final goods and services created within a given country by both domestic and foreign firms, but using only that country's factors of production.

In modern economic literature, there are three ways to measure GDP:

a) method of calculation based on income, or distribution method;

b) the method of calculation based on expenses, or the method of final use of income;

c) the method of calculation based on added value, or the production method.

When calculating GDP by income, the following are summed up:

all types of factor income (wages, interest and rent);

net profit of entrepreneurs, i.e. dividends and retained earnings;

three components that are not income (depreciation, or the amount of capital consumed, indirect business taxes and corporate income taxes).

When calculating GDP by expenses, the expenses of all economic agents that use GDP are summed up. These total costs include four main components:

personal consumption expenditures, i.e. household expenses for the purchase of durable goods and current consumption, for services (this does not include expenses for the purchase of housing);

government procurement of goods and services, i.e. expenses for the maintenance of the army, the state administrative apparatus, for the maintenance of schools, institutes, health authorities, etc.;

GDP=GNP minus net factor income from abroad;

GNP=GDP plus net factor income from abroad.

What are macroeconomic indicators?
To measure economic activity, various economic quantities and indicators are used that characterize the state, properties, and quality of the economy, its objects, and economic processes.

Macroeconomic indicators are summary, generalizing, averaged over the economy as a whole indicators of production and consumption volumes, income and expenses, structure, efficiency, level of well-being, exports and imports, economic growth rates, inflation.

The system of national accounts is a set of statistical economic indicators that characterize the values of the total product and total income and allow one to assess the state of the country’s economy.

Macroeconomic indicators allow: 1) to measure the volume of production at each specific point in time; 2) determine factors that directly affect functioning; 3) by comparing factors over several years, trace the dynamics and make forecasts for further economic development; 4) develop state economic policy.

Economic quantities and indicators can be divided into 1) volumetric (quantity of product) and 2) qualitative (the ratio of two quantities).

In most countries, the annual output of the national economy is measured through the gross national product (GNP). This indicator has been used since 1988 in Russia.

Gross National Product (GNP) is the sum of market prices of all final products (goods and services) created by producers in a given country during the year, both domestically and abroad. Not all goods produced in a given year will be sold: some of them may be replenished, but since they were produced in that year, they are counted in GNP. GNP is measured in monetary terms, since all products are heterogeneous. Sales are included in GNP!!! only final products, excluding sales of intermediate products, i.e. used in the manufacture of the final product. This eliminates double counting and overestimation of GNP.

Final products are goods and services that are sold for final use and not for processing or resale.

GNP is considered a measure of the economy as a whole, because it actually includes the value of all goods and services produced during the year. Based on GNP, several more indicators are calculated: gross domestic product, net national product, national income.

Net National Product (NNP) – this is the market value of goods and services actually created by the country for a certain period.
NNP = GNP - cost of capital consumed = depreciation (from Latin amortisatio - repayment, payment of debts).

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – the sum of market prices of all final products produced per year directly within the country and only by national producers.
There are two indicators: 1) real GDP, then its volume is expressed in constant prices of manufactured products; 2) nominal GDP, when its volume is measured in current prices.
When calculating the real GDP indicator, as a rule, an adjustment is made for the level of inflation (price increases), and it will depend only on changes in real output.
Methods for calculating GDP:
1) by expenses: the summation of all expenses incurred in a society, including consumer expenses of the population, investment expenses of producers, government purchases of goods and services, net exports (the difference between the country’s exports and imports);
2) by income: summation of all income in society: indirect taxes, wages (except for the salaries of civil servants, since they are paid from the state budget), income from property, profit, interest on capital, depreciation, rental payments;
3) by added value: by the value that develops during the production process at a given enterprise and characterizes its real contribution to the creation of the final product; including wages and profits; summation of added values for all sectors and types of production in the economy.
By dividing a country's GDP by the number of citizens, we get an indicator called GDP per capita.

Net Domestic Product (NPP) – reflects the productive potential of the economy and includes only net investment and does not include the cost of consumed capital (depreciation).
NVP = GDP – depreciation.

National income – this is 1) the value of the total product created in the country during the year, calculated in monetary terms; 2) newly created value for a certain period; 3) total income within the economy of a certain state, earned (created) by all owners of economic resources (factors of production).
National income = GNP – (depreciation calculations + indirect taxes).
National income = NNP – indirect taxes.
National income = all factor income = wages + rents + interest payments + owner income + corporate profits.

Personal income (PD) is the total income received by the owners of economic resources (factors of production).

Disposable personal income (DPI) – this is income used, i.e. available to households.
RLD = LD – individual income taxes (IIT).

In addition to basic macroeconomic indicators, they use: the volume of GDP per capita or per person employed in the economy; the volume of investment in the national economy; volume of national exports and imports, etc.

The economic growth.
What is economic growth?
The combination of two factors - the relative limitlessness of human needs and the growth in the number of inhabitants in most countries of the world - forces humanity to constantly increase the scale of production of goods and services. This process is called economic growth. We can talk about economic growth only when an increase in the production of various goods and services is achieved not at the cost of an emergency overexertion of all forces (for example, during a war), but steadily - in the course of ordinary, normal economic activity.
Economic growth is a long-term increase in real GDP, both in absolute terms and per capita.
1) We must keep in mind only real GDP, because nominal GDP can grow, but inflation, and therefore prices, can grow even faster, and as a result, real GDP can even decrease. 2) It is necessary to calculate GDP not only in absolute values, but also per capita, since the population can grow, and then per capita of each resident, even with an increase in the absolute size of GDP, there will be less GDP. 3) Only a long-term increase in GDP can be considered economic growth.

Factors of economic growth: 1) land (natural resources); 2) labor; 3) capital.

Types of economic growth: 1) intensive (increasing GDP due to qualitative improvement of production factors and increasing their efficiency); 2) extensive (an increase in GDP due to a quantitative increase in the use of resources; the resources available in the country, but not yet used, are involved in production).

Factors of intensive economic growth: 1) scientific and technological progress (STP); 2) increasing the capital-to-labor ratio; 3) improving the qualifications and educational level of employees (human capital); 4) rational distribution of limited resources (capital and labor move from less efficient industries to more efficient ones); 5) manifestation of the effect of production scale (enlargement of production increases its efficiency).

Human capital– assessment of the potential ability to generate income embodied in an individual. Human capital includes innate abilities and talents, as well as education and acquired qualifications.
Economies of scale - a reduction in unit costs for output when production is enlarged, determines the nonlinearity of the dependence of costs on output volume; typical for the manufacturing industry.

The most important factor of intensive growth is scientific and technological progress (STP). In the 80s XX century the so-called electronic revolution, comparable to the industrial revolution of the 18th-19th centuries. and the electrical revolution. Scientific and technological progress has a huge impact on all factors of production (labor productivity in agriculture, high-tech means of production).

Economic development.
The concept of "economic growth" is used to describe the state of affairs in the economies of the richest countries in the world (that is, countries with the highest levels of gross product per capita). The term “economic development” is used to describe the situation in other countries. The reason why economics has coined the term “development” to refer to the processes in the less wealthy countries of the world is that these countries are forced to solve somewhat different problems during the period of growth than the richest countries of the world:
1) creation of industry (industrialization);
2) the development of cities and the resettlement of a significant part of the rural population in them (urbanization);
3) increasing the cultural and educational level of the population;
4) creation of economic infrastructure;
5) development of the country’s economic mechanisms;
6) the formation of a middle class represented by entrepreneurs;
7) creation of a system of legal protection for business.
The first three problems in Russia have already been solved. The solution to the remaining four in our country is happening very slowly. At the same time, we are beginning to lose even those prerequisites for economic development that we had before: industry and infrastructure are being destroyed, the education system, personnel training and science are degrading. Russia is increasingly beginning to spin in a “vicious circle of poverty and underdevelopment.”
The “vicious circle of poverty” is a problem characteristic of developing countries, which consists in the fact that low income does not allow savings, and therefore investments, on the scale necessary to develop production and increase income. As a result, poverty begets poverty. To break out of this cycle of poverty, external or internal sources of investment in the economy are needed.
!!! The economic growth? economic development. Economic growth is only one component of the economic development process. In the process of economic development, the economy goes through not only phases of growth, but also phases of decline, which can be accompanied by both a relative and absolute drop in production volumes.
!!! Economic development = economic growth + recession.

Economic cycles.
Cycles (from the Greek kyklos - circle) are regularly repeating periods in the development of nature and society.
There are natural, industrial, scientific, technical, economic, and environmental cycles. Economic cycles - in addition to cycles of economic activity - include demographic, innovation, structural, and management cycles.
The economic cycle is an alternating alternation of ups and downs in the movement of real GDP, a period of development from one crisis to another.

Business cycle phases:
Version No. 1: 1) rise, 2) crisis, decline, or recession, 3) depression, 4) recovery.

1) Economic growth: almost full employment of the active population; constant expansion of the production of all goods and services.
At some point, aggregate supply begins to exceed aggregate demand.

2) Economic crisis, recession, or recession: reduction in production and consumption, income and investment, fall in GDP.
Recession (Latin recessus - retreat) is a decline in production or a slowdown in its growth rate.
An economic crisis is a disruption in the development of the economy; manifests itself in an absolute drop in production, underutilization of production capacity, rising unemployment, disturbances in the monetary and monetary spheres, etc.

3) Depression: the economy, having reached the bottom, is marking time, because it takes time for it to gradually gain momentum.
Depression (Latin depressio - suppression) - stagnation in the economy, characterized by a lack of growth in production and business activity, low demand for goods and services, unemployment; usually occurs after and as a result of an economic crisis.
Depression after the crisis indicates that the economic crisis has entered its final phase and we should expect a revival and then a rise in the economy.

4) Revival: demand is growing; industry begins to attract additional labor; trade orders more and more goods; The incomes of the population and the profits of entrepreneurs are growing.

Version No. 2: 1) rise (revival) - when the scale of production expands; 2) peak – when the expansion of the scale of production gives way to a decline; 3) recession (depression) – when the scale of production narrows; 4) the lowest point (crisis) – when a recession gives way to a rise.

A crisis- Greek turning point. Crisis (as well as peak) from this point of view represent turning points in the cycle, which, as a rule, are relatively short-lived and mark a change in the direction of movement; the same phases as depression and recovery are longer in nature and have a decisive influence on the state of the economy, and therefore are recognized as the main ones.

History of economic cycles.
The first economic crisis occurred in England in 1825, and the cyclical crisis of 1857 became global. The longest crisis (the Great Depression) occurred in 1929 - 1933. In the US, real GDP fell by 40%. Modern crises are not so deep: the decline in production lasts on average 10-12 months, and the reduction in real production ranges from 1.5 to 5% (US data). In the United States, economic recessions occurred in 1973-1975, 1979-1980, 1981-1982, 1990-1991. However, the latest crisis, which began in September 2008, brings to mind the times of the Great Depression.
Stagnation (from Latin stagno - making motionless) - 1) stagnation in the economy, production, trade, preceding a recession, accompanying a recession; 2) long-term stagnation in the economic process.

Types of economic cycles:
1) cycles N.D. Kondratiev (50 – 60 years old), called “long waves”:
2) cycles of S. Kuznets (18 – 25 years), or “medium waves”;
3) cycles of K. Juglar (7 – 12 years);
4) short cycles by J. Kitchin (2 – 4 years).
These cycles interact. Each Kondratieff cycle contains several Juglar cycles, and each Juglar cycle contains several Kitchin cycles.

Causes of economic crises.
1. External (exogenous) reasons: 1) wars, due to which the economy is restructured for the production of military products, additional resources and labor are attracted, and at the end of the war a recession occurs; 2) the impact of other external factors, for example the so-called. oil shocks, when oil-producing countries united into one cartel - OPEC - and sharply raised oil prices, which caused the biggest global crisis in the post-war period of 1973-1975; 3) major innovations (railroads, cars, electronics), which have a great impact on investment, production, consumption, and price levels; 4) sun spots that affect crop yields, and crop failures can lead to a crisis in the entire economy.

2. Internal (endogenous) reasons: 1) monetary (monetary) policy of the government (a large amount of money creates an inflationary boom, and an insufficient amount reduces investment and leads to a decline in production); 2) a change in the ratio of aggregate supply and aggregate demand (dramatically new goods appear, and producers of old goods have to close production and transfer resources to other industries); 3) reduction in production caused by the accumulation of large inventories due to low demand or high prices = aggregate supply exceeds aggregate demand.

Types of crises (depending on the cause):
Version No. 1: 1) crisis of overproduction (generated by overproduction of goods and growth of production capacity); 2) structural crisis (associated with the birth of new industries and technologies and the withering away of old ones); 3) market crisis (associated with the cyclical fluctuations of supply and demand in the market); 4) seasonal crisis (generated by the technological specifics of some industries).

Economic crises of the 19th century. (crises of overproduction) arose when supply exceeded effective demand and overaccumulation of capital resources began.
Types of overaccumulation: 1) commodity overaccumulation (surplus of unsold products, commodity mass is formed); 2) overaccumulation of capital (excess production capacity); 3) monetary overaccumulation.

The most important feature of the crisis of 1929-1933. there was a coincidence of the crisis of overproduction caused by mass production with a structural crisis.

Version No. 2: 1) a crisis of underproduction, as a rule, is caused by non-economic reasons and is associated with a disruption of the normal course of (economic) reproduction under the influence of natural disasters or political actions (various bans, wars, etc.); 2) crisis of overproduction.

Modern crises.
The peculiarity of modern crises is that with the growing openness of national economies and the processes of globalization of the world economy, national crises develop into world ones (the crises of 1948-1949, 1957-1958, 1969-1971, 1974-1975, 1980-1982. , early 90s of the XX century, 2008-???).

Karl Marx and Nikolai Kondratiev.
In the 19th century European economists noticed wave-like fluctuations in economic activity with a period of 7-11 years (“commercial and industrial cycles” by Juglar).
Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) in Capital revealed the nature of these fluctuations, linking them with the characteristics of the capitalist economy, periodically leading to crises of overproduction.
Nikolai Kondratiev (1892-1938) revealed longer cyclical processes in the economy - waves lasting 48-55 years (“long waves” by Kondratiev). Such cycles begin in the late 80s – early 90s. XVIII century Since then, Western countries have experienced four “long waves,” each of which has an upward phase in the first half and then a downward phase of economic conditions. At the junctions of upward and downward phases and changes in the large cycle, the greatest number of social upheavals (wars, revolutions, major social conflicts) occur. Approximate boundaries of large cycles (“long waves”): 1) 1780-1790 – 1810-1817 – 1844-1851; 2) 1844-1851 – 1870-1875 – 1890-1895; 3) 1890-1895 – 1914-1920 – 1933-1938; 4) 1933-1938 – 1945-1955 – 1975-1985; 5) 1975-1985 – 2000-2010 – ???-????. The basis of Kondratiev’s “long waves”, apparently, lies in the change in the technical and technological base of the economy of industrial society that occurs at half-century intervals and its spread to all sectors of the economy in the main economic zones of capitalist civilization.

GDP, its structure and dynamics

Learning objective: developing the ability to study written sources; use educational literature,summarize existing knowledge; development of the ability to analyze statistical data on main macroeconomic indicators.

Learning Objectives : learn to use microeconomic models to explain real economic situations; form your own attitudes that allow you to understand the essence of ongoing economic phenomena and critically comprehend economic information; learn to analyze statistical data on basic macroeconomic indicators, explain the difference between gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP).

Subject results: the formation of the ideological, value-semantic sphere of students, the formation of skills of critical thinking, analysis and synthesis, the ability to evaluate and compare research methods characteristic of the social sciences, mastery of the basic conceptual apparatus of the social sciences.

Objectives of practical work

1. Repeat the material on the topic “Definition of GDP, CPI».

2. Answer questions.

3. Analyze situations and answer questions.

4. Analyze the situation and answer questions.

5. Based on the data presented, calculate GDP.

6. Using the table data, find the CPI.

Occupation availability

1. Notebook for practical exercises

2. Handle

3. Texts of tasks

Brief theoretical and educational materials on the topic

One of the main macroeconomic indicators that evaluate the results of economic activity is gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP).

GDP is all final goods and services produced in a country during the year, regardless of whether the factors of production are owned by residents of the country or owned by foreigners ().

GNP is the market value of all final goods and services produced in a country during the year. GNP measures the value of products created by factors of production owned by citizens of a given country (residents), including in the territory of other countries - this is called net factor income.

GNP = GDP + net factor income.

Net factor income from abroad is equal to the difference between the income received by citizens of a given country abroad and the income of foreigners received in the territory of a given country.

Dividing a country's GDP by the number of its citizens yields an indicator called “GDP per capita.” The higher the GDP per capita, the higher the standard of living in the country.

Final goods and services are those that are purchased during the year for final consumption and are not used for intermediate consumption (that is, in the production of other goods and services).

There are two ways to calculate GDP:

a) on expenses;

b) by income.

AND consumer price index(CPI) measures the change in the cost of a fixed set of consumer goods and services purchased by the population in the current period compared to the base period. Used to study price dynamics. When calculating it, quantitative data from the base period are used as weights.

Questions to reinforce theoretical material for practical lessons

1. What is GDP and GNP?

2. What is GDP per capita?

3. What methods of calculating GDP exist??

4. What does the CPI measure?

Assignments for practical classes

1. Analyze the situation and answer the questions

Saturday afternoon. The husband is repairing his car, the wife is preparing dinner, the children are washing the floor. Everyone is busy with necessary, useful work, producing goods (lunch), providing services (repairing a car, cleaning the floor).

Will GDP change as a result? Why?

The same situation as in the first case, but the father of the family agreed to repair his neighbor’s car for a fee.

Will GDP change now? Why?

2. Analyze the situation and answer the questions

Over the course of a year, the farmer grew rye, sold it to the miller, the miller ground the grain and sold the flour to the baker, who baked the bread and sold it to the engineer.

What is the GDP growth? Why?

3. Based on the data presented, calculate GDP based on income and expenses.

Articles

Amount, trillion. rub.

Personal consumption expenses

230

Dividends

Indirect taxes

Corporate income taxes

Retained earnings of firms

Wage

220

Interest

Import

Export

Rent

Investments

Government procurement of goods and services

4. The company annually purchases 3 types of goods for production: A, B, C. The quantity of goods and prices for the base and reporting year are presented in the table.

Product

Qty

Base period prices

Price for the reporting period

100

200

250

Exercise. Find the consumer price index.

Instructions for performing practical work

1. Read brief theoretical and educational materials on the topic

2. Answer questions orally to reinforce the theoretical material for the practical lesson.

3. Read the assignments for the practical lesson carefully.

5. Write down the name of the practical work in your notebook

4. Complete the tasks, write down the answers in your notebook

Criteria for assessing practical work

Task 1 – 2 points

Task 2 – 1 point

Task 3 – 1 point

Task 4 – 1 point

Practical work performance control form

The completed work is presented to the teacher in a notebook for practical work.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

KRAMATORSK ECONOMIC AND HUMANITIES INSTITUTE

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

discipline: "Macroeconomics"

"Gross domestic product and its structure"

Completed by a student

1st year group F-08-1D

Pavlyuchenko L.V.

Checked:

Akopov Sergey Eduardovich

Kramatorsk

Introduction

1. Production.

2. Reproduction results at the microeconomic level

3. Reproduction results at the macroeconomic level

4. Essence and structure of GDP

Conclusion

Economic theory and economic practice indicate that globalization has become one of the most important features characterizing the modern economy. In turn, the main form of expression of globalization is economic internationalization, which objectively requires the universalization of economic terminology, rules for accounting for economic activity and economic indicators. As a result, in the 50s. XX century The System of National Accounts (SNA) appeared, which is a set of unified international economic terms, systems, indicators and accounting rules, used at the national (state) and international levels.

The main, basic indicator of the System of National Accounts, as is known, is the gross national product (GNP). The second most important macroeconomic indicator is gross domestic product (GDP).

The purpose of studying this topic is to find out the reasons for using GDP, its disadvantages and advantages.

The main sources when studying this topic were:

1. Tyomny Yu.V., Tyomnaya L.R., Economics of tourism.

2. Kozyrev V.M. Fundamentals of modern economics

3. Macroeconomics Agapova T.A.. Seregina S.F.

The initial economic basis of the life of any human society is the production of goods and services, both material and intangible, because only what is actually produced can be distributed, exchanged and consumed.

The production process is not a single act. People can't stop consuming, so they can't stop producing.

Reproduction is the process of production, taken in the dynamics of its continuous renewal.

The production process takes place at the micro and macro levels, therefore, two sides should be seen in reproduction: the general and the specific.

Common features that are equally characteristic of both micro and macro levels:

qualitative content of reproduction, i.e. analysis of what is reproduced: labor, material goods and economic relations (social and organizational);

quantitative reproduction can be simple, expanded and narrowed. The first involves the resumption of production at previous levels; second, resumption of production on a large scale; third, resuming production on a smaller scale;

the source of expanded reproduction both within the firm and within society is the surplus product and its value expressions - net income and profit. With expanded reproduction, the surplus product is divided into two funds - the consumption fund and the accumulation fund;

Over time, reproduction goes through four stages: production, distribution, exchange and consumption.

It is customary to distinguish between two types of expanded reproduction and, accordingly, two types of economic growth: extensive and intensive. In the first case, the source of production growth is additional resources; in the second - production efficiency.

The results of reproduction for a certain period (year, six months, quarter, month) both at the micro- and macroeconomic levels are expressed in a whole system of indicators.

The most general indicator of production and, accordingly, reproduction at the microeconomic level is the gross output of an enterprise or firm.

Gross output is the totality of all material goods and services created by the team of a given company over a certain period of time.

In real life, in the conditions of a company’s work on the market, gross output takes a modified monetary form, i.e. You can always ask the question of what is the value of the firm's gross output produced by it for a given period. In addition to the monetary form of gross output, special emphasis should be placed on commodity and sold products. Commercial output is that part of the gross output that is ready for sale on the market. Quantitatively, marketable products are less than gross by that part of it that is consumed by the enterprise for its own needs. Sold products are that part of marketable products that have already been sold. Of course, at any given moment, commercial and sold products may not quantitatively coincide. Gross output consists of two parts: material inputs and net product. Its external value expression is wages and other types of remuneration.

Material costs are the value created by past labor and transferred to the cost of a new product. In other words, this is the value embodied in the consumed material factors of production. In turn, material costs include two parts: depreciation, i.e. that part of the value of fixed assets that is transferred to the cost of the new product, and the cost of material circulating production assets (raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, etc.), which in each cycle of circulation is transferred to the cost of the new product entirely.

The net product is the value created by the living labor of the workers of a given enterprise. In value (monetary) terms, the net product represents the newly created value, which in Western economic literature is often called added value, and in Russian literature - gross income. In turn, the net product for final use could be divided into two parts: the necessary product and the surplus product.

The necessary product is that part of the net product that is required for the reproduction of the labor force of the enterprise's workers.

Surplus product is a part of the net product that exceeds the amount of the required product and is used for the general purposes of an enterprise, firm, or centralized by the state in the form of taxes and used for the social and economic needs of society. The external value expression of the surplus product is net income, which is subsequently split into profit, interest and rent, business income and the tax part. The relationship between surplus and necessary products shows what part of the net product the collective of employees of the enterprise uses directly for themselves, and what part - for the social and economic needs of the company and society as a whole.

In the process of circulation and turnover of capital (funds), gross output and its modified expressions - commodity and sold products - are ultimately split into two parts: enterprise costs and profit. Costs accumulate all the costs of the company that are necessary for it during the next new cycle of capital (funds) circulation within the limits of simple reproduction. The costs include:

a) all material costs of the company;

b) all the necessary product, i.e. all types of remuneration;

c) part of the surplus product and, accordingly, part of the net income, which the company must transfer to the owners of borrowed capital, as well as to the state (interest, rent, taxes). The remaining part of the net income forms profit, which characterizes the net, absolute effect of the activity of a given company, because quantitatively profit is the difference between the cost of gross output and total, total costs. In other words, profit is the excess of results over costs.

The overall result of reproduction and its structure at the microeconomic level can be conventionally presented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 1).

Fig.1. Reproduction results at the microeconomic level

This structure does not take into account the tax mechanism, which would make significant adjustments to it. Thus, in Russia there are currently more than 40 types of federal and local taxes, which are levied on a variety of elements of the value of gross output: value added; at a profit; taxes that take into account the wage fund, etc.

The results of the reproduction process at the macroeconomic level have a more complex structure in comparison with the results of this process at the micro level.

For a long time, the indicator of gross social product (GSP) was widely used in our country; in the literature it was often called the total social product (SOP).

The gross social product was the totality of all material goods created in a country during a certain period (usually a year).

To eliminate the first drawback, domestic statistics introduced a new indicator - the final social product (FSP), which was a set of material goods created by society over a certain period, but excluded the repeated counting of materials (intermediate product). In other words, the CPC united the totality of material goods entering final consumption, both personal and industrial. Thus, in the USSR in 1990, the GPPA in actual prices was 1631.6 billion rubles, and the COP was approximately equal to 1061.9 billion rubles, i.e. accounted for approximately 65% of the VOP value. However, two other shortcomings (services and foreign economic relations were not taken into account) were also characteristic of the final social product.

factor costs, which are paid for the use of factors of production (wages, interest, rent);

additional costs as a result of capital depreciation as a result of obsolescence;

income of entrepreneurs, i.e. profit.

Gross domestic product is the totality of final goods and services created within a given country by both domestic and foreign firms, but using only that country's factors of production.

In modern economic literature, there are three ways to measure GDP:

a) method of calculation based on income, or distribution method;

b) the method of calculation based on expenses, or the method of final use of income;

c) the method of calculation based on added value, or the production method.

When calculating GDP by income, the following are summed up:

all types of factor income (wages, interest and rent);

net profit of entrepreneurs, i.e. dividends and retained earnings;

three components that are not income (depreciation, or the amount of capital consumed, indirect business taxes and corporate income taxes).

When calculating GDP by expenses, the expenses of all economic agents that use GDP are summed up. These total costs include four main components:

personal consumption expenditures, i.e. household expenses for the purchase of durable goods and current consumption, for services (this does not include expenses for the purchase of housing);

government procurement of goods and services, i.e. expenses for the maintenance of the army, the state administrative apparatus, for the maintenance of schools, institutes, health authorities, etc.;

GDP=GNP minus net factor income from abroad;

GNP=GDP plus net factor income from abroad.

they do not consider self-care outcomes; the work of housewives, repairs of apartments and cars by the owners themselves are not reflected in the company’s reports, because they bypass the market;

they do not take into account the results of the shadow economy, which are based on illegal transactions;

they do not reflect the results of environmental pollution, and environmental factors in general are not taken into account;

they do not take into account the effect of leisure time. A person cannot live only by work and only for work. In real life, work is needed only in order to live;

they do not take into account other non-market factors of well-being (life expectancy, level of education, culture, intellectual potential);

the public sector of all types of services is accounted for by inputs, not by outputs.

consumption,

investments,

government spending,

net exports.

Each of them represents a special and at the same time interdependent sector of the economy, which together forms the national income.

In world practice, the indicator of net economic welfare (NEW) is also used. At the same time, CHEB=GNP+self-service+free time±shadow economy-environmental pollution.

The main elements of the material form of national wealth are:

fixed production assets;

working production assets;

non-productive fixed and working capital;

personal property of the population;

natural resources that have been explored and accounted for;

society's reserves and insurance fund in case of natural disasters, war and other unforeseen disasters.

The main elements of the intangible form of national wealth are:

educational and qualification potential of society;

achievements of domestic science;

accumulated values of national culture and art;

the spiritual wealth of society, its moral values.

18,402,391 million rubles, material current assets – 1,763,342 million rubles. and household property – 1,947,131 million rubles. .

contraction of the money supply), as well as household property (the result of a deterioration in the standard of living of the people).

There are also three methods for calculating GDP:

GDP - as the sum of gross value added

GDP - as the sum of final use components

GDP - as the sum of primary income

1. Agapova T.A., Seregina S.F. Macroeconomics: Textbook/ Ed. Doctor of Economics, prof. A.V. Sidorovich; Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov.-4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Publishing House "Delo and Service", 2001.-448 p.

2. Amosova V.V., Gukasyan G.M., Makhovikova G.A., Economic theory, St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002, -480 pp.: ill.

3. Borisov E.F. Fundamentals of Economics: A Textbook for Students Wed. specialist. Uch. Establishments.-M.: Yurist, 2002.-336 p.

4. Voitov A.G. Economics: A textbook for students of economic lyceums, colleges and students of non-economic universities.-M.: Publishing house. House "Dashkov and Kº", 2000.-332p.

5. Kozyrev V.M. Fundamentals of modern economics: Textbook.-3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2003.-528 pp.: ill.

6. Lipsits I.V. Economy. Book 2.-Ed. "Vita-Press", 1996.-352 p.

7. Tyomny Yu.V., Tyomnaya L.R. Economy of tourism: Textbook.-M.: Soviet sport, 2003.-416 p.

8. Economics. Textbook / Ed. A.I. Arkhipova, A.N. Nesterenko, A.K. Bolshakova.-M.: “Prospekt”, 1999.-800 p.

9. Economics. Textbook, 3rd ed., revised. and additional / Ed. Doctor of Economics science prof. A.S. Bulatova.-M.: Yurist, 2001.-896 p.

10. Economic theory: Textbook / Ed. Ed. acad. IN AND. Vidyapina, A.I. Dobrynina, G.P. Zhuravleva, L.S. Tarasevich.-M.: Infra-M, 2001.-714p.

Macroeconomics: Textbook for universities / Edited by prof. I.P.Nikolaeva.-M.: Unity-DANA, 2000, p.10.

National Economy of the USSR in 1990. Statistical Yearbook.-M.: Finance and Statistics, 1991.-P.26.

Russian statistical yearbook: Statistical collection/Goskomstat of Russia.-M., 2001.-P.302.

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