The city, whose name is translated from Greek as “beautiful harbor,” arose on the shores of Uzkaya Bay in the 4th century BC. e. By the end of the century, he became dependent on Chersonesos, and in the 3rd century BC. e. - into the sphere of Scythian interests. The strengthening of the Scythians forced the Greeks to significantly update the defensive line of the settlement, building into it a fortress wall with towers near the bay. However, the measures taken did not save the city - in the 2nd century BC. e. it nevertheless passed into the hands of the Scythians. At the end of the 2nd century BC. e. Kalos Limen became part of the power of Mithridates VI, but after his death it returned to the Scythians. The end of the settlement dates back to the 1st century AD. BC: it is believed that it was completely destroyed by the nomadic Sarmatian tribes invading from the northern steppes.

Kulchuk

High relief “Feasting Hercules”, found in 2008 at the Kulchuk settlement. Stored in the Kalos Limen museum in the village of Chernomorskoye

The settlement on the southern coast of the Tarkhankut Peninsula (2.5 km south of the modern village of Gromovo) arose in the 4th century BC. e. and became one of the largest in the Chersonesos state. Like many other Black Sea cities, it was forced to repel constant attacks by Scythian tribes that occupied some areas of the steppe Crimea. During the Greco-Scythian conflicts, Kulchuk changed hands several times, but nevertheless remained a major trading point. The Scythians built their own fortification system here - a rampart and a moat lined with stone. The last owners of the settlement in the ancient era were the Scythians - with them in the 1st century AD. e. life in this place died out, as researchers believe, due to drought and the threat from the Sarmatian tribes. In the Middle Ages, when Crimea was under the control of the Khazar Kaganate, a settlement arose again on Kulchuk, now Khazar.

Belyaus

Another settlement founded in the 4th century BC. e. immigrants from Chersonesos. It was a block of five estates, fenced with stone walls, along which outbuildings were located. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. Belyaus was captured by the Scythians, who, as in Kulchuk, built a rampart and a ditch lined with stone. In the second half of the 1st century BC. e. life on Belyaus was dying out - a few inhabitants reappeared in the settlement only in the 3rd century AD. e. During the Great Migration of Peoples (IV-V centuries AD), the Huns stayed in this place, and the last inhabitants of Belyaus were the Khazars.

Kara-Tobe

Defensive tower

The settlement on the western coast of Crimea was, like many others, founded in the 4th century BC. e. and then included in the Chersonesos state. But, unlike other cities, early Greek buildings were practically not preserved here: the surrounding areas were poor in stone, and therefore the buildings that had served their purpose were immediately dismantled in order to erect new structures. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. the settlement fell into the sphere of influence of the Scythians, and Scythian buildings arose on the site of Greek estates. The Scythians were driven out by the troops of Mithridates VI, but after the death of the Pontic king they returned to the Black Sea settlements, including Kara-Tobe. Around 20 AD e. the settlement died in a fire - the residents left their homes in a hurry, not even having time to save their utensils. After this, life on Kara-Toba was restored, but never reached its previous level. During the confrontation between the Scythians and Rome, which in the third quarter of the 1st century AD. e. came to the aid of Chersonese, the residents left Kara-Tobe without a fight. At the end of the 1st century AD. e. a small village arose there again, but at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. e. the life of the settlement finally died out.

Chersonese Tauride

The polis was founded in 529 BC by immigrants from Heraclea Pontus and existed for a long time as a Greek colony. Over time, it turned into the capital of the state, to which many Black Sea cities submitted. But the problem was the Scythian tribes, with whom Chersonesus was forced to wage constant wars, which caused enormous harm to its economy. In the end, Chersonesus resorted to the help of the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator - and was eventually absorbed by his power. After the death of Mithridates, Chersonesus became part of the Roman Empire, and in the 5th century AD it submitted to Byzantium. However, despite the consistent dependence on three empires, the city of Chersonesos remained the largest political and cultural center of the Northern Black Sea region until the beginning of the 13th century. With the weakening of Byzantium, Muslim and nomadic tribes became more active in the region, who repeatedly plundered the city, until in 1399 the Golden Horde temnik Edigei completely destroyed Chersonesos.

Panticapaeum

Ruins of the prytaneum, a city council in ancient Greece

The city on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus, on the site of modern Kerch, was founded in the 7th century BC. e. came from Miletus. In the 540s BC. e. Panticapaeum led a military confederation that gathered the surrounding Greek policies, which found it difficult to resist the nomads attacking them alone. In the 5th century BC. e. The Archeanactid dynasty reigned in Panticapaeum, and then the Spartocid dynasty, which turned the confederation into the Bosporan state, and Panticapaeum into a huge prosperous city (its territory grew to 100 hectares). At the end of the 2nd century BC. e. The Bosporan kingdom lost its former power and submitted to the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator. However, this did not greatly damage Panticapaeum, which now became the capital of another state. Mithridates annexed a huge territory to his kingdom - in addition to the Black Sea region, it included Asia Minor, Colchis and Greater Armenia - but began to be at enmity with Rome. The wars that began were unsuccessful for him - as a result, fleeing from Roman troops, Mithridates took refuge in his own palace in Panticapaeum and, seeing that enemy troops were approaching the city, committed suicide.

Greek colonies in Crimea

Modern Feodosia is the only city in the Northern Black Sea region that bears its real ancient Greek name. The history of the city began in the middle - second half of the 6th century BC. e. It was founded by settlers from the Asia Minor city of Miletus, at the final stage of the “Great” Greek colonization. The advantageous location on sea trade routes, an excellent harbor and the proximity of agricultural areas predetermined the rapid growth and economic prosperity of the policy.

In the historical fate of Feodosia, like the whole of Crimea, an outstanding role was played by the “Great” Greek colonization, which took place in the archaic era of the history of ancient Hellas, occurring in the 8-6 centuries BC. The Greeks (Hellenes) brought civilization and the most advanced culture within the ancient ecumene to the peninsula. What made people leave their native lands and embark on a very dangerous journey in search of a new homeland?

The soils of Hellas are infertile (only in a few of its regions bread was grown in sufficient quantities), hence the great need of the Greeks for imported bread. The country is also not rich in metals and wood. Meanwhile, in the archaic era, Hellas was experiencing an economic boom, the intensively developing craft experienced a shortage of raw materials, the growing maritime trade required markets for the sale of goods (olive oil, wine, handicrafts) and the purchase of everything that the Greeks needed (bread, raw materials).

The rapid development of the economy led to a sharp increase in the population; society was unable to feed the “extra” people. The Archaic era was also the time of the formation of states (polises) on the territory of Balkan and island Greece. This process was accompanied by the loss of land plots by many ordinary peasants and even aristocrats, hence the growth of property inequality and, which is inevitable in such circumstances, socio-political struggle. The policies were slave-owning states, their economy needed cheap labor, and the extraction of slaves became another incentive for the colonization movement.

Peasants who lost their plots of land or did not receive them in their homeland took part in the search for a new homeland; among the settlers there were also artisans, traders and representatives of the clan nobility (some of them hoped to improve their financial situation, others left their native lands for political reasons, having been defeated in the intensified struggle within the civil collectives of the emerging city-states). The number of immigrants was small - from one hundred to a thousand people. The colonies (Greek - apoikia) were not politically dependent on the metropolis, although they usually maintained friendly relations and various connections with them.

The bulk of the Greek colonies in the Northern Black Sea region appeared in the 6th century BC. On the western, Crimean coast of the Kerch Strait (Greek - Cimmerian Bosporus) the cities of Panticapaeum (Kerch), Nymphaeum, Myrmekiy, Tiritaka, Porthmium, Parthenius, Acre, Kitey were founded, on the eastern coast - Phanagoria, Hermonassa, Kepi, Sindskaya Gavan. East of Feodosia, on the slope of Mount Opuk - Kimmerik. In the southwestern Crimea - Kerkinitida (Evpatoria), Chersonesos (Sevastopol). The Greeks, who knew a lot about navigation and sea trade, chose a convenient bay on the western shore of the Gulf of Feodosia; a port was located in a natural harbor; to protect ships from waves and winds, a pier was built. The port city became a reliable refuge for ships and the most important trading center on the northern coast of the Black Sea.

The Greeks, not spoiled by the gifts of nature in their homeland, were attracted to the area of the Feodosian Gulf by many other things. In ancient times, this territory was richer than in our time, and the newcomers were able to take advantage of such gifts of nature as the so-called non-industrial reserves of iron and coal, wood, various types of stone, sand, and clay. Salt was mined from nearby lakes. They were engaged in fishing and hunting.

And most importantly - agricultural work: they grew bread, grapes, garden and vegetable crops, and raised livestock. To extract fresh water, they used all the available, not very rich, reserves: rivers, fresh lakes, springs, and built drainage structures and water pipelines. The center of the colony became Quarantine Hill. The mountains and the sea protected her from possible dangers. It was easy to surround a small hill with a ring of defensive walls, behind which, if necessary, the entire population of the city could hide.

The colonists developed relationships with local residents in different ways; it all depended on what places the newcomers claimed and what was the level of development of the aborigines, whether they were interested in contacts with new neighbors and in the exchange of goods. Ancient authors associated Feodosia with the tribes of the Scythians and Taurians.

In those places where the Scythians were in contact with the Tauri (this includes the Feodosia region), there was an intensive process of assimilation of these two ethnic groups. Excavations at the Feodosian Karantina brought fragments of polished molded pottery from the late 6th - 4th centuries BC, and one find dates back to the 7th - early 6th century BC. The Greeks did not make such dishes. But we cannot say whether there was some kind of barbarian settlement on the site of the future Feodosia - the evidence is clearly insufficient.

Beautiful places in Crimea

Greek city-states of Crimea:
history of construction, location, public order

The formation of Greek city-states in Crimea is an achievement of the Great Colonization of the Hellenes, which took place on the lands of the peninsula between the 8th and 6th centuries. BC e. It is sometimes believed that the process of development of the Mediterranean coast and the Black Sea region is better described by the term “resettlement”. However, what made the Greeks leave their native places and go to places where they had to start life again?

Firstly, during this period of history there was a population explosion in Greece. The overpopulation of Hellas gave rise to the beginning of migration processes. Secondly, the Greeks were sorely short of agricultural land. In addition, the migration processes were associated with trade expansion, the search for products and sources of raw materials that were scarce or did not exist at all in Greece.

All this is complemented by military, social and ethnic reasons. The Hellenes were threatened by the Lydians and Persians, and there were significant disagreements between the Greeks, generated by belonging to different segments of the population and interethnic tensions.

Pampered under the warm sun, the Hellenes initially did not like the relatively cold local climate, and the inhabitants of Crimea were fearful. They called the Black Sea the phrase “Pont Aksinsky”, which means “inhospitable sea”. However, they soon changed their point of view and the prefix “a” was transformed into “ev”. This is how the Greek toponym Pont Euxine (“hospitable sea”) appeared, and the history of Crimea began to take on a different character.

The Greek city-states of Crimea were built by people from Miletus. Less often - immigrants from Heraclea Pontic. However, scientists managed to find traces of the habitation of Greeks on the peninsula who arrived from Colophon, Ephesus and Teos. The area of the Greek settlers was formed: the South-East of Crimea, the shores of the Kerch Strait and the territory of the Taman Peninsula.

Greek city-states and settlements in the Northern Black Sea region:

The political structure of the Crimean ancient settlements was similar to that in mainland Hellas. The Greek city-states of Crimea were predominantly slave-owning republics with a democratic way of life. The polis model allowed the city and its choir to organically coexist and made such settlements independent and viable units.

The Greek city-states of Crimea had three traditional branches of government today; they could solve all internal problems and independently elect government bodies. Their legislative power was represented by the people's assembly, the executive power by collegiums and magistrates. Adult men were allowed to solve problems of national importance. Slaves, foreigners and females had no rights. The courts in the Greek colonies of Crimea were highly specialized.

The first Greek city grew up in the east of Crimea, its name is Panticapaeum.


Kerch. Ruins of Panticapaeum - the first Greek city-state on the territory of Crimea	In the center of the picture is K.F. Bogaevsky “Theodosius” (1930) - Quarantine Hill - the alleged site of the founding of the Greek city-state, traces of which are now hidden by the layers of subsequent civilizations. The Genoese fortress of Kafa is depicted on Quarantine Hill.

Over time, several more large settlements were built on the peninsula: Chersonesos, Kerkinitida, Kalos-Lymen, Nymphaeum, Feodosia.


Greek city-state of Chersonesus: ruins of a residential quarter (Gagarinsky district of Sevastopol)	Ruins of the Greek city-state of Kalos-Limen (northwestern coast of Crimea)

The largest Greek state union of the Crimean peninsula of ancient times - the Bosporan kingdom - emerged as a result of constant confrontations with local barbarians; it will be discussed separately.

The Greek city-states on the Crimean Peninsula can be conditionally divided into two parts - those that at some historical moment came under the influence of Chersonesos and those that found themselves in the sphere of interests of Panticapaeum. The latter, starting as independent city-states, united in a union, or rather, they were forced to do so by necessity - it was necessary to confront local tribes and develop trade with the metropolis. Later, these policies became part of the Bosporan kingdom of the Spartokid dynasty. What cities are these?

Greek city-states under the influence of Panticapaeum

If the capital was founded in the 7th century BC, then Nymphaeum, located a little south, was founded at the beginning of the 6th century. It was one of the largest and most important Greek city-states.

Founded by the Milesians, it soon came under the influence of Athens and, accordingly, entered the Delian symmachy, which was ultimately defeated in the fight against Sparta. Nymphaeus broke away from Athens and handed over his fate to the Spartokids and the Bosporan kingdom. The city was destroyed more than once (especially catastrophically by the Goths), artifacts were stolen more than once in our time, so archaeologists did not get much. But what remains allows us to judge the greatness of the city and its architectural splendor.

A little north of Nymphaeum, in the same period as the last one, another policy was founded by the Milesians - Tiritaka. This Greek city-state had an industrial and economic orientation, which is confirmed by excavations. It was surrounded by walls only in the 3rd century AD. It was repeatedly destroyed by both the enemy and earthquakes. Under the Byzantines, during the reign of Justinian I, a basilica was established in Tiritaka, the ruins of which were explored during an archaeological expedition.

Among all the Greek city-states of Crimea, the most attractive is Acre, all because this city almost completely went under water as a result of transgression, a rise in the water level of the Black Sea. This city was not as large as Panticapaeum; its main structure was the port. As a result of underwater archaeological expeditions, walls, towers, building foundations, many small objects and a rich collection of coins were found.

From the west, the port Greek city-states were constantly subject to raids by nomads, especially after the fall of the Pontic kingdom. To protect the policies from these raids, the city of Ilurat was built from the depths of the Kerch Peninsula in the 1st century AD. Active excavations were carried out after the war; massive walls were discovered, which were rebuilt more than once. Underground passages, wells, towers - Ilurat was built using all modern fortification knowledge at that time. However, the fortress did not last long; at the end of the third century AD, the defenders abandoned it.

The history of Crimea in antiquity is a constant search for comrades-in-arms and a regular struggle for survival. Who were the Crimean Greeks afraid of? Their relations with the Tauri who inhabited the peninsula were changeable. At first, the Crimean aborigines were perceived by the Hellenes only as a pirate people, capable of killing a stranger in order to sacrifice him. In the places where the Taurians settled, practically no objects made by the Greeks were found. This means that there were no trade relations between the peoples.

In ancient policies, samples of molded ceramics with black walls were found, which suggests the presence of marital ties between young representatives of the Taurus tribes and the sons of the colonists. A 5th century tombstone was also found in Panticapaeum. BC e., located above the grave of the respected brand. This means that male Tauris sometimes lived in the Greek cities of Crimea. Scholars believe that, as a rule, they had the status of slaves, but there were still exceptions.

The Greek settlers tried to live peacefully with their Scythian neighbors, bringing rich gifts to the barbarian kings, who ceded their territories to them. From time to time, short-term military confrontations arose between them and the frightened Greeks built defensive fortresses. One of these wars marked the end of the Scythian kingdom.

During excavations of some Greek cities, surgical instruments made of bronze and bones were found. These artifacts suggest that in the Crimean ancient settlements of immigrants from Greece there was a fairly developed medicine.

The high level of cultural life in the Greek city-states of Crimea is evidenced by the presence of the same theaters as those that existed in the historical homeland of the Hellenes. In such structures there could be up to 3,000 people at the same time. Scientists also found musical instruments used by the Greeks in Crimea: lyre, trumpet, flute, cithara.

The people who inhabited the Greek city-states of Crimea professed polytheism and polytheism. They worshiped pagan gods who personified the forces of nature. Very soon they began to pay more attention to Apollo, the protector of the settlers.

In Chersonesos, the cult of Artemis, the patron goddess of this polis, was honored. They made sacrifices in the form of fish, domestic animals, and agricultural products. Deities were worshiped in sanctuaries, temples, and home altars. Clay copies of victims were often brought there. In the 3rd century. n. e. paganism in Crimea began to be replaced by Christian teaching.

Let's draw some conclusions. The ancient colonization of Crimea began in the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. and the Greek city-states existed until the invasion of the Huns, which occurred in the 4th century. n. e.

All settlements founded by people from Miletus, Heraclea Pontus, Colophon, Ephesus and Theos were republics with three branches of government. Among them, only one monarchy stands out - the Bosporus Kingdom. The first Greek city in Crimea is Panticapaeum. It appeared in the 7th century. BC e.

A century later the Nymphaeum was built. Then Tiritaka, Acre, Ilurat, Kitey, Cimmeric, Pormfiy, Mirmekiy, Zenon Chersonesos, Theodosius grew up. Soon they all fell under the influence of Panticapaeum and became part of the Bosporan kingdom.

In the VI century. BC e. The Greeks built the Tauride Chersonese, which managed to conquer Kerkinitida and Kalos-Lymen. The Crimean Greeks got along with the Tauri, Scythians, and Sarmatians, who also lived on the peninsula. From the 1st century BC e. the authorities of the Greek city-states of Crimea were forced to submit to Rome. Chersonesus existed longer than all other Greek city-states and became a stronghold of Byzantinism in Crimea.

INLIGHT/olegman37

Panticalei Khankai(Greek Παντικάπαιον) founded on the site of modern Kerch by immigrants from Miletus at the end of the 7th century BC. e., in its heyday it occupied about 100 hectares. The Acropolis was located on a mountain called today Mithridates. The main patron deity of Panticapaeum from the founding of the settlement was Apollo, and it was to him that the main temple of the acropolis was dedicated. The construction of the oldest and most grandiose building, by the standards of the Northern Black Sea region, of the Temple of Apollo Ietra was completed by the end of the 6th century. BC e. In addition, later, next to the palace of the Spartokids, there was a temple in honor of Aphrodite and Dionysus. Over time, the entire city was surrounded by a powerful system of stone fortifications, superior to that of Athens. In the vicinity of the city there was a necropolis, which differed from the necropolises of other Hellenic cities. In addition to the usual ground burials for Hellenes at that time, the necropolis of Panticapaeum consisted of long chains of mounds stretching along the roads from the city to the steppe. On the southern side, the city is bordered by the most significant ridge of mounds, today called Yuz-Oba - a hundred hills. Buried under their mounds were representatives of the barbarian nobility - the Scythian leaders who exercised military-political protectorate over the city. The mounds still constitute one of the most striking attractions in the vicinity of Kerch. The most popular of them are Kul-Oba, Melek-Chesmensky, Zolotoy and especially the famous Tsarsky.
The history of Panticapaeum as a city began at the end of the 7th century BC. e., when on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait) ancient Greek colonists founded a number of independent city-states (polises) that formed in the 40s. VI century BC e. military confederation. The goal of the intercity union was to confront the indigenous population - the Scythians. Panticapaeum was the largest, most powerful and probably the first. This is indicated by the fact that already from the late 40s. VI century BC e. Panticapaeum minted its own silver coin, and from the last third of the 70s. IV century BC e. - and gold.
City of Feodosia was founded by Greek colonists from Miletus in the 6th century BC. e. The ancient name of the city was Kaffa, mentioned during the time of Emperor Diocletian (284-305).
From 355 BC. e. Kaffa was supposedly part of the Bosporan kingdom. According to some estimates, ancient Kaffa was the second most important city in the European part of the Bosporan kingdom with a population of 6-8 thousand people. Economic prosperity was the reason for the outbreak of war between Feodosia and Bosporus. In 380 BC. e. The troops of King Leukon I annexed Feodosia to the Bosporan kingdom. As part of the ancient Bosporus, Feodosia was the largest trading port in the Northern Black Sea region. Trade ships with grain departed from here. The fortified center of Feodosia - the acropolis - was located on Quarantine Hill.
The city was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD. e.
Chersonese Tauride, or simply Chersonesos (ancient Greek Χερσόνησος - ἡ χερσόνησος) is a polis founded by the ancient Greeks on the Heraclean Peninsula on the southwestern coast of Crimea. Nowadays the Khersones settlement is located on the territory of the Gagarinsky district of Sevastopol. For two thousand years, Chersonesus was a major political, economic and cultural center of the Northern Black Sea region, where it was the only Dorian colony. Chersonesos was a Greek colony founded in 529/528. BC e. came from Heraclea Pontus, located on the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea. It is located in the southwestern part of Crimea, near the bay, which is currently called Karantinnaya. In the earliest layers of Chersonesus, archaeologists found a significant number of shards (fragments) of archaic black-figure ceramics, which date back no later than the 6th century BC. e.
A little over a hundred years after the founding of Chersonese, its territory already occupied the entire space of the peninsula lying between the Karantinnaya and Pesochnaya bays (translated from Greek “Chersonese” means peninsula, and the Hellenes called the southern coast of Crimea Tavrika (the country of the Taurians).

10. Socio-political life and government structure of Chersonesus.
State authority
The bulk of the free population of Chersonesos were Greeks, and the Greeks were Dorians. This is indicated by epigraphic monuments, which, until the first centuries of our era, were written in the Doric dialect. The characteristic features of the latter is the use of: α instead of y, for example in the words δάμος-δ-^ιος, βουλά, -βοολή, Χερσόνασος instead of Χερσόνησος, etc.
But, along with the Greeks, Tauris and Scythians lived in Chersonesus. Scythian names are found on amphora handles and in epigraphic monuments (ΙΡΕ I 2, 343). One of the Chersonese ambassadors in Delphi, who received proxy there, has the patronymic Σκοθα;. The same person is apparently named in the act of sale of land (ΙΡΕ I 2, 403). Thus, some persons from the native population not only lived in Chersonesos, but also enjoyed civil rights there. It is difficult to say whether this was an exception or, on the contrary, a mass phenomenon. In any case, there is no doubt that Chersonesus was closely connected with the local population, and did not stand isolated from it.
The ruling class in Chersonesos were slave owners: landowners, workshop owners, traders, as well as small peasants and artisans. The oppressed and exploited class were the slaves who came from the native population; “Slave owners and slaves are the first major division into classes.” 1 In addition, the Scythian population, who lived on the territory belonging to Chersonesos, was dependent on Chersonese. The revolt of the Scythians under the leadership Savmaka is convincing evidence that the Scythians were exploited by the Greeks.
During the period under review, there was a democratic republic in Chersonesos. The forms of government bodies and the general nature of the state structure of Chersonesos have much in common with the state structure of Heraclea and its metropolis - Megara. 1 The main source for studying the state structure of Chersonesos are epigraphic monuments - inscriptions on marble slabs. Valuable documents are inscriptions issued on behalf of the state: honorary decrees, proxies, treaties, acts, etc. One of the most important monuments of Chersonesus is the oath dating back to the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. (IPE I 2, 401). Until now, it was generally accepted that the oath represented an oath that was taken by young men who had reached the age of majority - ephebes, who then received the rights of citizenship, that the oath listed all the duties that every citizen had to observe. 2 Academician S. A. Zhebelev 3 believes that all citizens of the state had to take the oath after the attempt to overthrow democracy was eliminated. This new understanding of the text of the oath gives us the opportunity to learn about the class struggle that took place in Hersemes in a fairly early period, which makes the oath an even more valuable monument.
Political life
Despite the fact that the political system of Chersonesus was called “democracy”, the leading role in the political life of the city is gradually passing into the hands of representatives of the most prosperous part of the population. Participation in public administration was not paid and therefore was practically inaccessible to those who lived only from the results of their labor. As follows from the honorary decrees and dedicatory inscriptions of Chersonese, actual power in the state gradually passes to several families, and the Chersonese democracy, as in Olbia, becomes a democracy only for a small circle of wealthy citizens.
Political life in the ancient city was always closely connected with religious life. Temples stood out in the architectural decoration of the city. Unfortunately, as a result of subsequent reconstructions and redevelopment of the city area, all the ancient temples were destroyed and were not preserved. However, we know from honorary inscriptions that there were several temples in the city. The main shrine of Chersonesos from the 4th century BC. e. became a sanctuary of the Virgin with a temple and a statue of this deity. In general, the religious life of the city at that time was rich and varied. At the head of the official pantheon, judging by the oath of citizens, were Zeus, Gaia, Helios and Virgo. In addition to the temple in the city near Chersonesos, on Cape Feolent or on the Mayachny Peninsula, there was another temple of the Virgin. In this temple, according to ancient Greek legends, the priestess was Iphigenia, the daughter of the leader of the Trojan campaign of the Greeks, Agamemnon, who was sacrificed by him. There was a temple to the Virgin in Chersonesus itself.

11.Bosporan kingdom. Government structure and socio-economic life. Uprising of Savmak
Bosporan Kingdom (or Bosporus, Vosporan kingdom (N. M. Karamzin), Vosporan tyranny) - an ancient state in the Northern Black Sea region on the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait). The capital is Panticapaeum. Formed around 480 BC. e. as a result of the unification of Greek cities on the Kerch and Taman peninsulas, as well as the entry of Sindiki. Later it was expanded along the eastern shore of Meotida (Sea of Azov) to the mouth of the Tanais (Don). From the end of the 2nd century BC. e. as part of the Pontic kingdom. From the end of the 1st century. BC e. post-Hellenistic state dependent on Rome. Became part of Byzantium in the 1st half. VI century Known from Greco-Roman historians. After the middle of the 7th century BC, Greek settlers appeared on the northern shore of the Black Sea, and by the beginning of the second quarter of the 6th century BC. e. develop a significant part of the coast, with the exception of the southern coast of Crimea. The first colony in this area was the Taganrog settlement, founded in the second half of the 7th century BC, located in the area of modern Taganrog. Most likely, the colonies were founded as apoikia - independent policies (free civil groups ). Greek colonies were founded in the area of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait), where there was no permanent local population. There was a permanent population in the Crimean Mountains, where the Taurian tribes lived, Scythians periodically roamed the steppes, and semi-nomadic Meotians and Sindian farmers lived around the Kuban River. At first, the colonies did not experience pressure from the barbarians, their population was very small, and the settlements had no defensive walls. Around the middle of the 6th century. BC e. Fires were recorded at some small monuments, including Myrmekia, Porthmia and Thorik, after which small fortified acropolises appeared on the first two of them. Conveniently located, possessing a good trading harbor and therefore having reached a significant level of development, Panticapaeum, presumably, became the center around which the Greek cities of both banks of the Kerch Strait united into an intercity union. Currently, an opinion has emerged that initially he managed to unite only nearby small towns around himself, and on the other side of the strait, the center founded in the 3rd quarter became the center. VI century BC e. Phanagoria. Around 510 BC e. The temple of Apollo of the Ionic order was built in Panticapaeum. Apparently, on behalf of the sacred union of cities that arose around the temple, a coin with the legend “ΑΠΟΛ” was issued. Whether this union was equal to a political one, how it was organized, who was part of it is unknown. There is a hypothesis linking the issue of these coins with Phanagoria.

Socio-economic life
The population of large territories of the Bosporan kingdom was at different stages of socio-economic development and social relations. The slave-owning mode of production reigned here, and therefore society was divided into free and bonded people. The ruling elite included the royal family and its entourage, officials of the central and local government apparatus, shipowners, slave traders, owners of land plots, craft workshops, wealthy merchants, representatives of the tribal and military nobility, and priests. The owners and managers of the land were Bosporan rulers and large landowners. There was state and private ownership of land. The Bosporan state was inhabited by free citizens of average income who did not have slaves, foreigners, as well as free communal peasants (Pelata). The latter were the main payers of taxes in kind for the right to use land and primarily bore the burden of duties in favor of the state and the local aristocracy. In addition, peasants were obliged to participate in the militia during the attack of nomadic tribes on the Bosporan kingdom. The low level of the social ladder was traditionally occupied by slaves, divided into private and state. The work of state slaves was mainly used in the construction of public buildings and defensive structures. In tribal organizations, slavery was domestic, patriarchal. Local aristocrats widely used slave labor on agricultural farms, where they mainly grew bread for sale.

State structure
According to the historical type, the Bosporan kingdom was a slave state, like the city-states that were part of it. In terms of the form of government, it was one of the varieties of despotic monarchy. From the beginning of its formation, the Bosporan kingdom was an aristocratic republic, headed from 483 BC. stood the clan of Archenaktidiv. From the middle of the 5th century. (438 BC) power passed to the Spartokid dynasty, which ruled here for three centuries. The Spartokids for a long time styled themselves archons of the Bosporus and Feodosia, and called themselves kings after the vassal barbarian peoples. Already from the III Art. BC. The double title disappears, the rulers call themselves kings (the Bosporan kings retained the title of archons in the 1st century BC only in relation to Panticapaeum).

The city-states that became part of the Bosporan kingdom had a certain autonomy and their own bodies of self-government (people's assemblies, city councils, elected positions). But already on the verge of a new era, the Bosporan kings became sole rulers, owners who called themselves “kings of kings” (with the accession of new tribes to the state, the title of head of state - king - was added to their ethnic name). In the 1st-3rd centuries AD. In the Bosporus, the tendency towards centralization of power intensified, accompanied by the formation of a complex state-bureaucratic structure with the tsarist administration at its head.

Savmak uprising
Scythian uprising in the Bosporus state in 107 BC. e. It flared up in Panticapaeum during negotiations with Diophantus on the transfer of power from the Bosporan king Perisad V to the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator (See Mithridates VI Eupator). Perisad was killed by Savmak, and Diophantus fled to Chersonesos. The rebels took possession of the entire European part of the Bosporus. In the N. century. The Scythian population, consisting of dependent peasants, artisans, and slaves, participated. S.v. prevented the implementation of a political deal, with the help of which the slave-owning elite of the Bosporus, trying to find a way out of the acute crisis and maintain their class dominance, tried to establish a regime of firm power, transferring it into the hands of Mithridates VI. The rebel leader Savmak became the ruler of Bosporus. The system established during the reign of Savmak, which lasted about a year, is unknown. After lengthy preparation, Mithridates VI sent a large punitive expedition of Diophantus to Sinope. In Crimea, Chersonesus detachments were included in it. Diophantus' troops took Feodosia, crossed the Kerch Peninsula and captured Panticapaeum. S.v. was suppressed, Savmak was captured, and the Bosporan state came under the rule of Mithridates VI.

Slavs in Crimea.

The Slavs appeared in Crimea in the first centuries of our era. Some historians associate their appearance on the peninsula with the so-called great migration of peoples of the 3rd-8th centuries. n. e. The most expressive traces of Slavic culture identified by archaeologists date back to the times of Kievan Rus. For example, during excavations on Tepsel Hill (near the current urban-type settlement of Planerskoye), it was discovered that Slavic settlements existed there for a long time, arose in the 12th-13th centuries. The temple opened on the hill is close in its plan to the temples of Kievan Rus, and the oven excavated in one of the dwellings is reminiscent of ancient Russian ones. The same can be said about the ceramics found during excavations. The remains of ancient Russian churches have been identified in various regions of the peninsula, most of them are located in eastern Crimea. Fresco paintings and plaster, judging by the fragments found in these ruins, are close to similar material from Kyiv cathedrals of the 11th-12th centuries.
Written sources indicate that Crimea was still at the beginning of the 9th century. falls into the sphere of influence of the ancient Russian princes. For example, the life of Stephen of Sourozh says that in the first quarter of the 9th century. Russian prince Bravlin attacked Crimea, captured Kherson, Kerch and Sudak (some historians consider this episode semi-legendary).
In the middle of the 11th century. The ancient Rus begin to settle in the Azov region, take possession of the Greek city of Tamatarcha, and the later Tmutarakan - the capital of the future ancient Russian principality. Sources give reason to believe that by the middle of the 10th century. the power of the Kyiv princes extended to part of the lands in the Crimea and, above all, to the Kerch Peninsula.
In 944, the Kiev prince Igor installed his governor in the Crimea, near the Kerch Strait, displacing the Khazars from there. It is difficult to accurately establish the boundaries of ownership of Russian lands in Crimea during this period. But the increased influence of the Rus in Crimea is evidenced by the text of the agreement concluded by Igor with Byzantium after an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 945: “And about the Korsun country: there are so many cities in that part, but the princes of Rus do not have power... and that the country does not submit to you,” that is, to the prince of Kyiv. By this treaty, Vazantium sought to limit the influence of the Russian princes in Crimea, taking advantage of the defeat of the Rus in 945. By the same treaty, the Kiev prince pledged to defend the Korsun land from the Black Bulgarians, which was only possible if Igor retained a certain territory in the eastern part of the Crimea or on Taman, where at that time the future Tmutarakan principality was taking shape.
Igor's son Svyatoslav managed to strengthen the influence of the Kyiv princes in Crimea, especially in the period 962-971. Only Svyatoslav’s unsuccessful campaign in Bulgaria forced him to promise the Byzantine emperor not to claim “neither the power of Korsun, and as many of their cities as possible, nor the country of Bulgaria.” But this was a temporary retreat of Rus' in Crimea. Svyatoslav's son Vladimir carried out a campaign against Korsun in 988 and captured the city.
Byzantium had to sign an agreement with the Kyiv prince, which recognized his possessions in the Crimea and the Azov region. Thanks to this agreement, Kievan Rus gained access to the Black Sea and strengthened the Tmutarakan principality, which was dependent on it. After the Korsun campaign, the city of Bosporus and its district were annexed to this principality, which received the Russian name Korchev (from the word “korcha” - forge, present-day Kerch).
Throughout the XI century. The Tmutarakan principality, including its lands on the Crimean Peninsula, belonged to Ancient Rus'. At the end of the 11th century. mentions of Tmutarakan disappear from the chronicle, but, obviously, even before the middle of the 12th century. The Kerch Peninsula and Taman were Russian. In the second half of the 12th century. The Tmutarakan principality fell under the blows of the Polovtsians, who roamed the Northern Black Sea region.
A number of written sources indicate that the lands on the Kerch Peninsula belonged to the Kyiv princes. Idrisi called the Kerch Strait “the mouth of the Russian River” and even knew a city in this region with the name “Russia” (We can assume that this is the Russian Korchev, which, according to a Byzantine source in 1169, was called “Russia” for some time). On medieval European and Asian maps of Crimea, many names of cities were preserved, indicating the long and long stay of the Rus on the peninsula: “Cosal di Rossia”, “Russia”, “Rossofar”, “Rosso”, “Rosika” (near Evpatoria), etc.
The Polovtsian and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion cut off Crimea from Kievan Rus for a long time.

13. Principality of Tmutarakan. Political structure, socio-economic life.
There are still many gaps in the history of the ancient Russian semi-enclave on the shores of the Kerch Strait - the Tmutarakan Principality. For example, the first mention of it in Russian chronicles appears in 988, when the Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich sent his young son Mstislav to reign in Tmutarakan, but the circumstances under which these lands came into the possession of the Kyiv princes, and the time when this happened, remain a subject of debate among modern historians. It is not known for certain who owned these lands before the arrival of the Russians. We do not know the exact boundaries of the Tmutarakan land and the time when Tmutarakan ceased to be a Russian principality.
According to one version, the Tmutarakan table was captured by Svyatoslav during a campaign against the Khazars back in 965-966. According to another, these lands, during the seizure by the Kyiv prince Vladimir Korsuni (medieval Kherson, modern Sevastopol), were granted by the Byzantines to the Russian prince for the obligation to protect the Crimean possessions of the empire from raids by nomads.
A lot of reliable information about the Tmutarakan principality has been preserved. It is safe to say that its territory included the Kerch Peninsula with the city of Korchev (Greek Bosporus, modern Kerch) and the Taman Peninsula, where the capital of the principality was the city of Tmutarakan (Greek Tamatarkha, Matrakha, modern village of Taman). Probably, the Tmutarakan principality also owned some sections of the coast of the Eastern Azov region, where rich fisheries had long been located.
Residents of the coasts of the Kerch Strait were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and caught fish, which abounded in the waters of the Azov and Black Seas. Crafts flourished in the cities, primarily pottery production. But the most important occupation of the inhabitants of the principality, located at the intersection of trade routes, was trade, which brought great income to the townspeople and the state.
The population of the principality was motley. Many Greeks lived here, settled in the cities and villages of Turkic nomads, including the Khazars, Jewish merchants and artisans, as well as people from the Caucasus, primarily the Zikhs and Alans. Over time, a noticeable Slavic layer appeared, represented by princely people, warriors, merchants, artisans and clergy.
The city of Tmutarakan was the seat of the head of the Zikh diocese, which reported directly to the Patriarch of Constantinople. Lead seals of Archbishop Anthony, who headed the diocese in the middle of the 11th century, are known.
Prince Mstislav was a very energetic ruler. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, in 1022 he set out on a campaign against the Kasogs. They came out to meet him. They were led by Prince Rededya. Both princes had a strong build and were distinguished by their strength, so they agreed to resolve the dispute by combat, so as not to destroy my people. According to the customs of that time, they fought without weapons, and only the winner had the right to kill the vanquished. The victory went to Mstislav. According to the agreement, the Tmutarakan prince received land, power over the Kasogs, property and the family of the vanquished.
The very next year, Mstislav, relying on his squad, the Kasogs and Khazars (inhabitants of the principality) subordinate to him, opposed his brother Yaroslav and fought for the Kiev throne. Having defeated Yaroslav, he received half of Rus' with the capital in Chernigov. Soon Mstislav leaves Tmutarakan, which is now controlled by his proxies.
Later, Prince Gleb ruled here, famous for measuring the distance from Tmutarakan to Korchev along the ice in 1068 and immortalizing this event with an inscription on the famous Tmutarakan stone, found in Taman at the end of the 18th century. For some time, Rostislav Vsevolodovich reigned here, hiding from the Kyiv government. He was poisoned by the Greeks at the instigation of Grand Duke Svyatoslav. Here and later, rogue princes more than once found refuge.
The most famous Tmutarakan prince was Oleg Svyatoslavich (baptized Mikhail). He first arrived in Tmutarakan in 1078 and, like Rostislav, hid here from his enemies. Having been defeated in the struggle for the reign of Chernigov, he was betrayed by the Polovtsians, captured by the “Kozars” in Tmutarakan and handed over to the Byzantines. His fate was determined by the change of power in Constantinople. Under the patronage of the new emperor of Byzantium, a lead seal with the image of the same archangel and the Greek inscription was preserved: “Lord help Michael, archon of Matrakha, Zikhia and all Khazaria.” An active and successful politician, Oleg has reigned in Tmutarakan for eleven years, but closely follows the events in Kyiv, dreaming of taking the Chernigov throne. And after the death in 1093 of the last of the Yaroslavichs - Vsevolod, realizing that the new Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh was still weak, in 1094 with his allies - the Polovtsian khans, he realized his dream - he established himself in Chernigov. After this event, Tmutarakan is no longer mentioned in the chronicles as a Russian possession.
The history of the Russian church is also closely connected with Tmutarakan. In addition to the church built by Mstislav in the name of the Mother of God, in gratitude for the victory over Rededya granted by the Virgin Mary, a Russian monastery was founded here near the city.
Its founder was the monk Nikon, known as one of the first Russian chroniclers and spiritual pillars of Rus' at that time, an associate of St. Theodosius of Pechersk. Nikon's influence on the spiritual and cultural life of Kievan Rus cannot be overestimated. Nikon lived for a long time in Tmutarakan and sometimes carried out diplomatic assignments for the townspeople. It was probably here that he began to create a new chronicle, which he completed in Kyiv.
After the end of the Old Russian reign in Tmutarakan, Russian people continued to live in Taman for a long time, and the Russian language was used here even in the middle of the 13th century.

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